OP 



.'flCIENTANDMODEftf 

HISTORY, 

Wi\i\\ ^tettons, adapted to the Use of ^rftoo 

ALSO, 

AN APPENDIX, 

containi ng 
The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of tes United St 
a j graphical Sketch of Eminent Personages, with a Curonologic 
Table of Remarkable Events, Discoveries, Improvements, etc. 

From the Creation to the Year 1 
By M. J. KEENEY, A.M. 

Author of "First Clasi, Book of History," "Columbian Arithmetic," &c 



S9/A Revised and Enlarged Edition. 



BALTIMORE: 

PuBLiSn^u by Jo^N Murphy & C 

Marble Building, 1S2 Baltimore street. 

Sole by Booksellers G e n e r a l l y. 



^t 



*r 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in 
the year 1867, by John Murphy, in the Clerk's 
Office, of the District Court of Maryland. 



sr 






PUBLISHERS' PREFACE 
To the Thirtieth Kevised and Enlarged Edition. 

The constantly increasing demand for Kerney's Compendium of His- 
tory has induced the publishers to issue a new edition, enlarged by the 
introduction of new chapters embracing all the important events, wars, 
revolutions and changes, which have taken place in the various countries 
of the world since the opening of the Crimean war, in 1854. JS^C 

These additions have been carefully prepared, and written in con- 
formity with the spirit of impartiality which has made Mr. Kerney's 
book so popular. The important events that have convulsed our own 
country during the past six years, have received particular attention; 
they are narrated with a faithful regard for truth, and without bias. 

The typographical execution of the whole bopk has been carefully re- 
vised, and no effort spared to make the Compendium worthy of the high 
reputation and liberal patronage it has heretofore enjoyed. 

Baltimore, July, 1867. 



Author's Preface. 

Is presenting this Compendium to the public, the author would beg leave tf 
make a few brief remarks. The great utility to be derived from a work of thif 
nature, will be evident, on the least reflection. To the man whose time i: 
limited, it will afford an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the most im 
portant events, the manners, customs, and institutions of various nations, with 
out the labor of reading more extensive works. On the other hand, it will prove 
highly useful to those who have passed through a course of historical study 
serving as an expeditious means of refreshing the memory, by recalling event i 
which time had- partially obliterated. In some respects, the Compendium po.' 
sesses an advantage over the more copious history. In the latter, the memor 
is frequently overcharged with a multiplicity of circumstances which oftC' 
obscure the most important facts; while, in the former, the most importai I 
events are only presented, and easily retained. 

A number of works of this nature have already appeared, and many of thei 
highly approved. Yet, in point of arrangement, and in the general matter of 
contents it would seem that some improvement might still be made. The divi 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

sion of history into periods, a system which has been followed by many respect- 
able historians, would appear, upon the whole, rather to obscure than aid the 
memory. The author, therefore, has thought proper to pursue the history of the 
various nations and institutions, by preserving an unbroken series of events in 
regular succession, from their earliest authentic records to their decline, or to 
the present time. 

In treating his subjects, it has been the studied design of the author to avoid 
all sarcastic remarks, and all useless invectives, making, in general, no further 
use of original comments than merely necessary to give a clear view of the facts 
•elated. By thus curtailing observations, which frequently make up a material 
portion of works of this nature, he has been enabled to insert a much greater 
irftount of historical matter than is usually met with in the same number of 
,)ages. In speaking of religion, the most respectful languago has been cm- 
ployed, and no expression has been used that could, in the remotest degree, 
wound the feelings of the professors of any creed. 

In order to render this Compendium more valuable to the private reader, and 
it the same time more useful to the student of history, the author has thought 
proper to add an Appendix, containing the Declaration of Independence and the 
institution of the United States, thus placing these documents, so interesting 
in themselves, and so important in their nature, particularly the Constitution, to 
'very American citizen, within the reach of every individual. Few indeed, in 
ihe community, have ever seen or read a copy of the Constitution, owing to the 
carcity of books which contain it. It would seem, moreover, a desirable object 
. ■) render the youth of our country early acquainted with the principles of the 
institution. This, it is hoped, will be accomplished by placing it in a work 

esigned for the use of schools and academies./ Biographical notices are at all 

imes interesting and instructive. But as the introduction of these notices in 

'lie body of the work would too much interrupt that close connection of events, 

.so important in a Compendium of History, the author has added a short Bio- 

;raphical Sketch of Distinguished Personages. By this means, he has been 

nabled to notice the lives and actions of manv eminent characters, who could 
not otherwise have been conveniently introduced. The Chronological Table, 
R hich fixes the date of all important events, discoveries, <fec, will be found both 
interesting and useful, as it will often save hours of labor and anxious research. 

In a work which professes to be a compilation, and which, from its nature and 
• 3sign, must consist of materials chiefly selected from the writings of others, it 
■ - scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the author has made of the 

bors of his predecessors. He has, in general, omitted the names of the authors 
ft om whom he has mado his selections, because he frequently thought proper to 

hange their style, and alter their language, in order to suit the connection, and 

[apt them to the nature of the Compendium. 

The author is well aware that much improvement might be made in the pre- 
- nt edition, and regrets, exceedingly, that several errors will be found upon its 

ges, but generally of a typographical character. But those who are acquainted 

ith the arduous task of passing the first edition of a work of fciis nature 

trough the press, will readily overlook its many imperfections. In orthogra- 

iy, Webster has generally been followed as the standard. 

If the present Compendium will be found, in the remotest degree, to benefit 
y portion of the community, or tend to facilitate the acquisition of historical 

lowledge, the most ardent desires of the author will be realized. M. J K. 
Baltimore, May, 1S45. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Sources and Division op History , 9 

cneation op the world 10 

Deluge 12 

Tower op Babel 13 

Assyria and Babylon 14 

Persia 17 

Persian Antiquities 18 

Phoenicians 19 

Egypt — 

Sect. I * 19 

II. Manners and Customs of the Egyptians 22 

III. Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake of Mceris , 23 

Greece — 

Sect. 1 21 

II. The Fabulous and Heroic Ages 2( 

III. Republic of Sparta , 2i 

IV. Republic of Athens 2\t 

V. From the Invasion of Greece by the Persians, to the Pelo- 

ponnesian War 31 

VI. From the beginning of the Peloponnesian War to the Reign 

of Philip of Macedon , 3' 

VII. Philip of Macedon. The Exploits and Death of Alex- 
ander 39 

VIII. From the Death of Alexander to the Subjugation of Greece 

by the Romans 4 I 

IX. Grecian Antiquities 4 

Philosophy 4 

Seven Wise Men 4 

Public Games 4 

Literature and Arts 4 

Private and Domestic Life 4 

Origin of Tragedy 5 

Rome — 

Sect. I. From the Foundation of the City to the Expulsion of Tar- 

quin 5 < 

II. From the Abolition of the Regal Power to the first Punic 

War t 

III. From the first Punic War to the Conquest of Greece ( 

IV. The Sedition of the Gracchi; Civil Wars; Conspiracy of 

Cataline * ' 

1* 5 



6 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Sect. V. From the first Triumvirate to the Dissolution of the Com- 
monwealth , 72 

VI. Rome under the Emperors 78 

VII. From Nerva to Constantine the Great 82 

VIII. From the Accession of Constantine to the Extinction of the 

"Western Empire S7 

Roman Antiquities 91 

Jewish History — 

Sect. I. The History of the Jews, until tneir Deliverance from 

Egypt 95 

II. The Government of the Judges; the Regal Government; 

the Restoration of the Jews from Captivity 101 

III. From the Restoration to the Destruction of Jerusalem by 

the Romans , 105 

Antiquities .' 109 

Manners and Customs 110 

Mythology of Ancient Nations ~. Ill 

Modern History . 4 117 

Middle Ages — 

Sixth Age 117 

Seventh Age 118 

Eighth Age , 119 

Ninth Age.... 121 

Tenth Age 122 

Eleventh Age 128 

Twelfth Age 124 

Thirteenth Age 125 

Fourteenth Age 126 

Monasteries 127 

Saracen Empire 127 

Feudal System 131 

Crusades 132 

First Crusade 134 

Second Crusade 186 

Third Crusade 137 

Fourth and Fifth Crusades 138 

Sixth Crusade 139 

Seventh and Eighth Crusades 139 

The effect of the Crusades 140 

Chivalry , 142 

Tournaments and Jousts 144 

The Origin of Duels 145 

France — 

Sect. I. Foundation of the Monarchy; Merovingian and Carlovin- 

gian Kings 147 

II. Capetian Kings 150 

III. Branch of Valois 152 

IV. From the Accession of Louis XII. to the Reign of Henry III. 155 
V. House of Bourbon; from Henry IV. to the Death of Louis 

XV 160 

VI. Louis XVI.; Revolution; Buonaparte; Louis XVIII.; 

Charles X 164 



CONTENTS. 

England — rA( 

Sect. I. From the Conquest by the Romans, A. C. 55, to A. D. 827... 1 

II. The Foundation of the Monarchy J 

III. Norman Family ; William the Conqueror,- William II. ; 

Henry I. ; Stephen of Blois 1 

IV. Family of Plantagenet ; Henry II. j Richard I.; John; 

Henry III.; Edward I. ; Edward II. j Edward III.; 

Richard II ] 

V. Branch of Lancaster ; Henry IV.; Henry V. ; Henry VI... 1' 
VI. Branch of York; Edward IV.; Edward V. ; Richard III... 1 
VII. Tudor Family; Henry VII. j Henry VIII. j Edward VI.; 

Mary; Elizabeth 1! 

VIII. Stuart Family ; James I.j Charle3 I.; the Commonwealth; 
Cromwell; Charles II.; James II. ; William and Mary ; 

Anne 2i 

IX. Branch of Brunsioick ; George I.; George II.; George III.; 

George IV.; William IV 2 

Scotland — 

Sect. 1 2 

II. House of Stuart..... 2: 

Ikeland — 

Sect. I 2: 

II. The Invasion of Ireland by Henry II 2; 

III. Insurrection of 1798. 2- 

The Society of United Irishmen 24 

The Orange Association 24 

The Legislative Union with Great Britain 24 

Spain 24 

The Inquisition 2c 

Portugal 2S ^ 

Poland 21 

Russia 21 

Prussia 21 ' 

Germany 2; 

Sweden 2f . 

Denmark , 21/ 

Netherlands and Holland.., 2< 

Italy 21 

Turkey 2 

Modern Greece 2. 

America — 

Sect. I. Discovery of the Country 2 

Conquest of Mexico 2 

The Manners and Customs of the Indians 2 

II. Settlement of Virginia and New York 2 : 

III. New England Settlements 2 

Maryland 2 

Pennsylvania 3 

Delaware and New Jersey 3 

The Carolinas '. 3 

Georgia 3 



8 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Sect. IV The French War; Conquest of Canada; Oppressive Mea- 
sures towards the Colonies; Commencement of Hostili- 
ties; Battle of Lexington ; Bunker Hill; Declaration of 
Independence 302 

United States — 

Sect. V. The War of the Revolution continued 311 

VI. The Three Years' War . 323 

VII. War with Mexico.... 330 

VIII. The administrations of Taylor, Fillmore and Pierce 343 

IX. Civil War 347 

Mexican War — The Empire 353 

Revolutions in Europe — 
Sect. I. France— Insurrection in Paris; Republic Proclaimed; Louis 
Napoleon; the Empire established; Crimean War; Ex- 
peditions to China and Cochin-China; Italian War 356 

II. The Revolt in Hungary; Insurrection in Vienna; War in 
the North of Italy; Revolution in Rome; Flight of the 
Pope; the Roman Republic; the Pope Restored; Italian 
Revolution; German War 360 

The Christian Church — 

Sect. I. From the Birth of Christ to the Triumph of Christianity.... 365 

II. From the Triumph of Christianity to the Reformation 373 

III. From the Reformation to the present time 380 



APPENDIX, 



The Declaration of Independence, "with the Names of the Signers 384 

The Constitution of the United States, with the Names of the Dele- 
gates to the Federal Convention 387 

Biography of Distinguished Personages 398 

The Invention of the Art of Printing 406 

Chronological Table 417 



ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. 



SOUltCES AND DIVISION OF HISTOKY 



1 History is a written narrative of past events, in regular succes- 
sion. The principal sources of history, independent of authentic 
records, are those which follow : 

1. Oral tradition, which existed before the invention of the ar 
of writing. From this source, Herodotus, one of the earliest pro- 
fane historians, derived the greater part of the facts which he 
relates. 

2. Historical poems, such as the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, 
which comprised the only history of the heroic ages of Greece. 

3. Visible monuments and ruins; such as the Pyramids of 
Egypt, the ruins of citips, as those of Balbec, Palmyra, and 
Persepolis, which serve to give an idea of the power, opulence, 
and taste of those by whom they were built. 

4. Coins and medals have always been of great utility in illus- 
trating history, and of giving some insight into the manners and 
customs of those nations to which they belonged. 

5. Inscriptions on marbles. The most celebrated collection ot 
marbles are those in the University of Oxford, in England, called 
the Arundelian Marbles, from the Earl of Arundel, by whom 
they were brought from Greece. Of these inscriptions, the most 
important is the Chronicle of Paros, which contains the chro- 
nology of Athens from the time of Cecrops, A. C. 1582, to 
A. C. 264. 

6. History is divided into Ancient and Modern. Ancient His- 
tory embraces the history of the world from the creation to the 
Christian era. Modern History comprises all the time subse- 
quent to that period. There is, however, a difference of opinion 
with regard to the line which separates Ancient and Modern his- 
tory. Some historians adopt the Christian era for the commence- 
ment of Modern history ; others take the subversion of the 
Western Empire of the Romans, A. D. 476; while others again 
carry it down as far as the establishment of the New Empire of 
the West, under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. 

7. Ancient History is distinguished by the four great Empires 
of Assyria or Babylon, Persia, Greece or Macedon, and Rome, 

1. What is nistory ? What is the first source of history? the second? the third? 
the fourth? the fifth? Where is the most celebrated of marbles? Which is the most 
important, and what does it contain? — 6. How is history divided? What is ancient 
rustory? What is modern history? What do some historians adopt as the division 
hetween Ancient and Modern hisforv? — 7. Whnt is nnrvent histnrv rtistinp-nished for? 



10 THE CREATION. 

which successively rose and declined. Modern History is dis- 
tinguished by the invention of gunpowder, and consequently 
a change in the mode of war ; the discovery of America; the in- 
vention of the art of printing ; the revival of letters; the Reforma- 
tion, and many improvements in the social condition of man. The 
Middle Ages embrace a period of time extending from the subver- 
sion of the Western Empire of the Romans, to that of the Eastern 
Empire, and are characterized by the rise and progress of 
Mahometanism and the Saracen Empire, the prevalence of the 
Feudal system, Crusades, and Chivalry. 

8. History is also divided into Sacred and Profane, Ecclesi- 
istica and Civil. Sacred History is that which is contained in 
the Scriptures. Profane History is the history of ancient pagan 
nations. The earliest profane historian is Herodotus, who is styled 
he Father of History. He compiled his works about 445 years 
A. C, and extends his accounts back as far as the year 713 before 
he Christian era. Ecclesiastical History is the history of the 
Church of Christ, from the promulgation of Christianity to the 
present time. Civil History is the history of the various nations, 
states and empires that have appeared in the world, and exhibits 
i view of their wars, revolutions and changes. For a period of 
nearly three thousand three hundred years subsequent to the crea- 
ion of the world, there exist no documents, with the exception 
)f the Scriptures, that really deserve the name of history. Our 
knowledge, therefore, of the early history of the world, the first 
ettlements of the different parts of it, the primitive state of so- 
ciety, and the progress of mankind towards civilization, is ex- 
remely limited. 



THE CREATION. 

The Creation af the World; Deluge; Tower of Babel ; fits 
persion of Mankind, 

1. From the sacred Scriptures alone, we are enabled to derive 
,-he authentic history of the creation of the world. According to 
■he account handed down to us by those sacred annals, respecting 
mt remarkable event, it appears that about five thousand eight 
undred and forty-nine years from the present time, God called 
lis visible universe into being, by the word of his power : that a 
etermined length of time was occupied in the completion of the 
'ork, the various parts being produced in six successive days \ 
lat on the last of the six days, God formed the body of man from 
le dust of the earth, and breathed into it an immortal soul, and 
instituted him lord of the animal creation; and finally, that God, 

For what is modern history distinguished? What do the Middle Ages comprise 1 . 
•8. What are the other divisions of history? What is sacred history? Profane 
story, and who is the earliest profane historian? What is ecclesiastical, and whaf 
civil history? 

1. From what source are we enabled to derive the authentic history of the Crea 
I >n? How old is the world, and how many days were employed in producing it : 
rom what did God firm the body of man? 



ANTEDILUVIANS. 1 1 

seeing that al^ his work was good, rested on the seventh day 
wnich he sanctified as a day to be devoted to religious solem- 
nities. 

2. The firat woman was formed from a rib, taken from the side 
of the man while in a deep sleep, and given to him as a compa- 
nion j in this manner was the sacred institution of marriage 
ordained by the Creator himself. Adam and Eve, the names ol 
the first of the human family, were placed by the Deity, imme- 
diately after their creation, in a terrestrial paradise, called the 
garden of Eden. They were permitted to use all the fruits of the 
garden, with exception of the fruit of the tree of knowledge of 
good and evil ; this restriction was laid upon them as a trial of 
their obedience, and the penalty of death was threatened if they 
should transgress the command of their Creator. 

3. Various opinions have been entertained with respect to the 
situation of the garden of Eden; but following the account given 
of it in the Old Testament, and judging from the well known 
names of the Tigris and Euphrates, we may determine with some 
probability, that it was situated in or near Mesopotamia. It is 
evident that it was east of Canaan, or of the wilderness where 
Moses wrote his sacred history, though the precise spot cannot 
now be ascertained. 

4. The innocence and felicity of our first parents were of short 
duration. Scarcely had they began to enjoy the delights of para- 
dise, when the woman, deceived by the subtlety of Satan, in the 
form of a serpent, plucked and eat of the forbidden fruit, and at 
the same time presented it to her husband, who likewise followed 
her example. The effect was decisive : the whole face of creation 
was changed. Death was introduced, and from that moment our 
first parents, with all their posterity, became liable to dissolution, 
and subjected to all the moral and physical evils which have af- 
flicted the human family to the present time. God called them to 
au account, and his awful voice filled their souls with dread. 

5. Adam being severely reprimanded for his disobedience, be- 
^an to exculpate himself upon the weak pretence that the woman 
had first offered him the fruit. The woman, hearing herself thus 
accused, sought to remove the blame from herself upon the ser- 
pent, that had deceived her. But in a formal violation of his 
precepts, God admits of no excuse ; he cursed the serpent as the 
first author of the sin, condemning it to creep upon the earth and 
eat the dust thereof; but for fear that man should despair under 
the weight of his afflictions, he promised him a future deliverer, 
declaring that the seed of the woman would eventually crush the 
serpent's head ; a declaration which referred, in its full extent, to 
the person of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind. Adam and 
Eve were then banished from paradise, and a cherubim with a 

What did he do on the seventh day ?— 2. From what was the first woman formed ? 
What were the names of the first of the human family ? and where were they placed f 
What were they permitted to use? Why was this restriction laid upon them ?— 
3. Where is the supposed situation of the garden of Eden ?— 4. What is said of the 
innocence of our first parents ? How was the woman deceived ? and what was the 
effect of iheir disobedience? — 5. What sentence was pronounced on the serpent? and 
what promise was made tri man ? What then became of Adam and Eve t 



12 THE DELUGE. 

flaming sword, placed at the east of the garden, to prevent all 
access to that once happy abode. 

6. In the first year of the world, 4004 years B. C, Cain was 
bom, and the following year is assigned for the birth of Mel. 
The two brothers not only followed different occupations, bul 
possessed very different characters. On a certain occasion, as 
they were both presenting their offerings to God, the offering oi 
Abelw&s accepted, while that of Cain was rejected. This cir- 
cumstance excited the indignation of Cain, who, availing himself 
of the opportunity as they were alone in the field, rose up againsi 
his brother and slew him. On account of this unnatural crime, 
Cain was immediately punished: God called him to a solemn 
reckoning, and after hearing with bitter anguish his doom pro- 
nounced, that he should be a fugitive and a vagabond on earth, 
we are told that he went out from the presence of the Lord, and 
dwelt in the land of Nod, east of Eden. 

7. After a brief account of Cain and his family, the sacred his- 
torian presents us with a short but interesting account of Enoch, 
who is said to have walked with God for the space of three hun- 
dred years, and at the expiration of that time, to have been taken 
up to heaven without passing through the scene of death. The 
sacred genealogy is carried down to the time of Noah and his 
sons, and the date of the life of each of the patriarchs is minutely 
given. The descendants of Seth at first continued pure and un- 
corrupt; at length, by intermarriage, with the descendants of Cain, 
they became like the rest of mankind, exceedingly degenerate. 

8. The Deity, justly provoked by the enormous degeneracy 
of his creatures, determined to destroy, by a universal deluge, 
the race of man, together with the whole animal creation, except 
a small remnant destined again to repeople the earth. From this 
tremendous sentence which God had pronounced, Noah and his 
family, eight in number, were the only persons who were exempted. 
Connected with this intimation which Noah had received con- 
cerning the approaching deluge, were several particular instruc- 
tions relative to his deliverance. He was ordered to build a large 
vessel, called the ark, according to the divine directions. 

9. The ark was built of gopher wood, which is supposed to be 
the same as the cypress. Its form was that of an oblong 1 square, 
with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the 
middle ; it consisted of three stories, and was divided into sepa- 
rate apartments. # When completed, Noah entered the aik to- 
gether with his wife, his three sons and their wives, taking with 
him every species of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs and by 
sevens, according to the divine command. Immediately after 
this, the fountains of the deep were broken up, and the windows 
of heaven were opened; during forty days and forty nights, with- 
out intermission, the waters were poured upon the surface of the 
globe. In the mean time, the ark rose with the rising flood, and 

6. When was Cain born? When was Abel born? and what is related of ihe two 
brothers? — 7. What is said Df Enoch ? and the descendants of Cain? — 8. What did 
the Deity determine to do? Who was exempted from the sentence? — 9. Describe 
the aik? When completed, what cid Noah do? How long did the waters contir.u? 
lo fall? 



TOWER OF BABEL. 13 

rode triumphant over the raging water, which soon buiied be- 
neath its swelling waves all living creatures, without distinction. 

10. When the waters began to subside, the ark rested on the 
top of Mount Ararat, in Armenia, and after it had remained 
there for four months, Noah being anxious to know whether they 
had disappeared from the earth, opened the window of the ark, 
and sent forth a crow, which did not return; after this he sent 
forth a dove, which, not finding a place on which to rest its feet, 
again returned to the ark. At the end of seven days, the dove 
was sent out a second time, and in the evening returned bearing 
in its beak a green olive branch, which Noah joyfully" received, 
not only as a proof that the flood had abated, but likewise as a 
sign that God was reconciled with the world. 

11. By the command of God, Noah then went out of the ark 
with his family, taking with him all the living creatures, after 
they had been shut up for the space of a year, and immediately 
afterwards he built an altar, and offered sacrifice to the Lord. 
God blessed Noah and his sons, and made a covenant with him, 
engaging no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confirma- 
tion of which, he set his bow in the heavens. Shortly after this 
period, Noah engaged in pursuits of husbandry, and having been 
intoxicated with the juice of the grape, was discovered in this 
situation by his youngest son Ham, who with indecent levity, in 
formed his brothers of the circumstance; they, however, treated 
their father with the highest degree of filial respect. 

Noah, as soon as he awoke, being informed of all that had 
passed, condemned the action of Ham, pronounced a curse upon 
his posterity, declaring that they should be the slaves to the slaves 
of his brethren, while at the same time he highly commended the 
piety of Shem and Japhet. 

12. The descendants of Noah soon became very numerous in 
the vicinity of Mount Ararat, where they first settled after the 
deluge, and finding the place, too small, they began to think of 
extending their territories, and of making new settlements, in 
different parts of the globe. Before their separation, they pro- 
posed leaving some monument behind them that might make their 
memory famous in after ages. With this view they undertook to 
build a city, and in it to erect a tower, the top of which might 
reach to heaven. Their intention was not merely to signalize 
tneir name, but also to provide themselves with a place of security 
Against any future deluge that might happen. At this time, all 
mankind spoke the same language, and therebv more effectually 
encouraged each other in their impious undertaking. God being 
offended at their presumption, resolved to stop the progress of 
their labor. ^ By a stroke of his divine power, they all in a mo- 
ment lost their uniformity of accent, and were surpiised to hear 
nothing but a confused and discordant sound of words which no 
one could understand. The tumult and disorder that ensued 

10. Where did the nric rest? Whnt is said of tne crow and the dove?— 11. What 
•die' Noah now do? Whal promise did God make? In whnt did Noah engage? What 
huppened to him? What sentence did he pronounce on Ham?— 13. What is said ol 
the descendants of Noah ? What did they undertake? Wliat did God do ? Whal 
ensued * Where did the descendants of llie sons of Noah settle. 



14 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

caused them to desist from their design, and the tower which they 
nad begun was. on that account, called the Tower of Babel, or 
Confusion. 

After this event, mankind separated and dispersed into differ- 
ent nations. The descendants of Shem are said to have settled 
in the south of Asia; those of Ham in Syria, Arabia and Africa, 
while the posterity of Japhet peopled the west of Asia, and also 
Europe. 



ASSYEIA AND BABYLON. 

1. Assyria, the first of the four great empires of anticjuity, de- 
rived its name from Jlshur, the son of Shem, who is said to have 
been the founder of Nineveh, its capital. The foundation ot 
Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, who is 
believed by many to be the same as Belus of profane history. 
These two cities are supposed to have been founded about the 
same time, shortly after the dispersion of mankind; but their 
history for many ages is involved in obscurity. It is commonly 
supposed that Assyria and Babylon were originally two distinct 
kingdoms, and continued separate until Babylon was conquered 
by Minus and annexed to the Assyrian empire. 

2. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign : he 
is said to have built, or at least to have enlarged and embellished 
the city of Nineveh, which stood upon the eastern bank of the 
Tigris. His design was to immortalize his name by the building 
of a city, which, in point of extent and magnificence, could not 
be ( surpassed by any other in after times. Nor was he much de- 
ceived in his view. The city of Nineveh was built in the form of 
an oblong square, measuring eighteen miles and three quarters 
in length, eleven and one quarter in breadth, and sixty miles in 
circumference. The walls were one hundred feet high, and of 
such thickness that three chariots might stand abreast upon them 
with ease. They were fortified and adorned with fifteen hundred 
towers, two hundred feet high. 

3. Ninus having made extensive conquests, married Scmira- 
mis, who succeeded him in the throne. She is described not only 
as surpassing all her sex in wit and beauty, but also possessing 
unbounded ambition and extraordinary talents^ for government 
and war. She enlarged Babylon and rendered it the most mag- 
nificent city in the world. The description of Babylon, given by 
ancient historians, seems almost incredible. The walls are said 
to have been eighty-seven feet in thickness and three hunched 
and fifty in height. They were drawn round the city in the form 
of an exact square, each side of which was fifteen miles in length, 
all built of brick cemented together with bitumen. On every side 

1. What is said ot* Assyria I Who founded Babylon ? What is supposed concern* 
ing Assyria and Babylon?— 2. What is said of Ninus! What was his design? De 
scribe Nineveh.— 3. What is said of Semiram s? Describe Babylon 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 15 

of this great square, there were twenty-five gates which were all 
made ot solid brass. From these twenty-five gates, the same 
number of streets ran in parallel lines to the gates on the opposite 
side of the wall, thus forming fifty streets, each fifteen miles long, 
each street one hundred and fifty feet broad. Round these squares, 
on every side, stood the houses, all built three or four stories high 
and beautified by all manner of ornaments towards the streets. 
The space within the middle of each square was void ground laid 
out in beautiful gardens. 

4. Semiramis, after a reign of great splendor for forty-two 
years, left the throne to her son Ninyas. From the time of Nin- 

>yas to the overthrow of the monarchy under Sardanapahis, a 
period of several centuries, little or nothing is known respecting 
the history of Assyria and Babylon. 

The name of S'ardanapahts is almost a proverbial reproach. 
He is said to have so degraded himself as to adopt the dress and 
occupation of a female, and to have passed his life in the most 
disgraceful effeminacy and voluptuousness. At length Jlrbaces* 
governor of Media, with Belesis, governor of the city of Babylon, 
and several others, disgusted with his inglorious and shameful 
life, formed a conspiracy against him. Sardanapahis having sus- 
tained a defeat, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his 
enemies, caused a pile of wood to be made in his palace, and burnt 
himself with all his women and treasures. 

5. On the ruins of this vast empire were founded three new 
kingdoms ; that of Media under Jirbaces, and that of Babylon 
under Belesis, and a third of Assyria, whose first king was named 
Ninus the younger. Ninus was succeeded by Tiglath-pileser, 
who invaded Juctah during the reign of Ahaz, and took possession 
of that part of the kingdom of Israel which lies east of the Jordan. 
Under the reign of his successor, Shalmaneser, an end was put to 
the kingdom of Israel, and its inhabitants were carried into captiv- 
ity. The next sovereign was Senacherib, who laid siege to Jeru- 
salem in the reign of Hezekiah, but he was compelled to return 
to his own dominions in disgrace, having lost 185,000 men of his 
army, who were destroyed in a miraculous manner in one night. 
The fourth king, Esarhaddon, defeated Manasseh, king of Judah, 
and carried him captive into Assyria. 

6. After the death of Bsarhaddon, Nabopolassar or Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of Babylon, assisted by Cyaxares, king of Media, 
besieged Nineveh, and having taken it, killed Saracus the king, 
and utterly destroyed that mighty city, and put an end to the 
Assyrian monarchy. He was succeeded by his son Ncbuchad 
nezzar II., who took Jerusalem and carried the Jews captive to 
Babylon. The particulars of this sovereign's reign are recorded 
in the book of Daniel. God, to punish his pride, reduced him to 
a state of insanity, but after wandering in the forest and feeding 

4. How Ion? did Semiramis reign? What is said of Sardanapahis? and what was 
hip ,.„a ?_5. What empires were now founded ? What was done in the reign of ShaJ- 
niane«er ? AY ho was the next sovereign, and what did he do? What did Esarhaddor 
Jo ? -45. What happened during the reign of Nabopolassar? What did Nebuchadnezzar 
lo' I low did Gol punish him? 



16 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

on grass like a wild beast for twelve months, he again recovered 
his mind, and being restored to his throne, by a solemn edict, 
published throughout his dominions the astonishing things that 
God had wrought in him. 

7. During the reign of BehJiazzar, who succeeded to the throne 
a few years after the death of Nebudiadnczzar, the Persians 
under Cyrus, after a siege of two years, by turning the course of 
the Euphrates, entered the city of Babylon through the dry chan- 
nel, and took it while the inhabitants were engaged in feasting 
and riot. Belshazzar was slain, and with him ended the Baby- 
lonian empire, after it had continued for about two hundred and 
ten years. 

8. Antiquities. The government both of Assyria and Baby- 
lon was strictly despotic and the sceptre hereditary. The whole 
was centered in the king; all decrees emanated from him, and he 
even claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity. 
The laws of the empire were in general vague and uncertain, 
depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign ; but there was 
one, however, fixed and irrevocable, which obliged all, particu- 
larly the poor, to marry. And in this a singular custom prevailed. 
No man had any power over his own daughters, but as soon as 
they were marriageable, they were put up at auction; and the 
price obtained for the more beautiful was assigned as a dowery 
for the more homely. In consequence of this practice, all the 
young women were disposed of in marriage; the beautiful for theii 
charms, and the homely for their wealth. 

9. The Babylonians, and particularly the Chaldeans, were early 
famed for their learning. They were the first who cultivated 
astronomy and discovered the exact motion of the planets ; they 
pretended to be able to foretell future events from the heavenly 
bodies, which was imbodied into a kind of science called astro- 
logy. They built temples to the stais as being the subordinate 
agents of the divine power, and by worshipping them they hoped 
to obtain the good will of the deity. 

From this they descended, by a natural process, to the worship 
of objects on earth as the representatives of the stars or the deity. 
It is evident that this was the origin of idol worship, from the fact 
that the names of the principal gods of the heathens in general are 
those of the sun. moon, and the five primary planets — Saturn, 
Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and Venus. The horrid custom of sacri- 
ficing human victims to conciliate their gods was first practiced 
by the Babylonians, and from them it was communicated to the 
surrounding nations 

The Babylonians applied themselves only to the more useful 
arts. Their immense buildings prove them to have been well 
skilled in architecture and geometry. They never attained to 
any superior excellence in painting and statuary; music and 
poetry were probably but little attended to. 

7. What was done during the reign of Belshazzar? What was his end'— 8. Whut 
is said of the government and laws of Assyria and Babylon? What singular eustoig 
prevailed?— 9. What is said of the learning of the Babylonians and Chaldeans? To 
what did they build temples? What is said concerning the origin of ii'ol worship! 
To what did the Babylonians apply themsplves? 



PEESIA. 

1. Persia was ths second of the four great empires of antiquity. 
rts history, prior to the reign of Cyrus the Great, is involved in 
obscurity and fable. It was originally called Elam, and the in- 
habitants Elamites, who were the descendants of Shem. We are 
informed by the Scriptures that one of the kings of Elam con- 
quered the king of Sodom, but was pursued and defeated by 
JJbrahctm. In the early ages, it was of very limited extent, but 
under the reign of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great Per- 
sian empire, it became the most powerful and extensive monarchy 
in the world, comprising Persia, Media, Babylonia, Syria and 
Asia Minor ; to these Egypt was added by Cambyses. 

2. Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character, 
and obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic actions and 
splendid achievements. Having subdued all the nations from the 
JEgean sea to the Euphrates, he together with his uncle Cyaxares, 
the second king of the Medes, took Babylon and conquered the 
Assyrian empire. After the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the 
two kingdoms and reigned over them for seven years, in the first 
of which he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews 
and rebuilding of Jerusalem. 

t 3. Herodotus, Xcnophon and other ancient authors, differ mate- 
rially in the accounts they give of the exploits and character of 
Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed all the abilities 
of an illustrious and able sovereign, with all the more amiable 
virtues that adorn humanity ; and according to the same author, 
he died like a philosopher, discoursing of death with tranquillity, 
and giving the most admirable instruction to his children, by 
which to form their character and regulate their future conduct. 
On the contrary, we are told by Herodotus , that Cyrus, having 
undertaken an expedition against the Scythians, was surprised 
and slain by a stratagem of the enemy. The account given by 
Xenophon has been followed by Rqllin and other modern writers, 
yet it is supposed by some that it was not the design of that 
author to exhibit a faithful record of facts, but rather to delineate 
the model of a perfect prince and a well organized government. 
4. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambrfces, who %as arbi- 
trary and cruel : his principal exploit was the conquest of Egypt; 
he made himself master of Pelusium by placing in front of nis 
army a great number of those animals considered sacred by the 
Egyptians, who not daring to injure them, made no opposition to 
the Persians. On the death of Cambyses, Smerdis usurped the 
crown: but after enjoying the regal dignity for sey^n months, he 
was assassinated, and Darius was elected to fill thewcant throne, 

1. AVhat is said of Persia? Whnl did it become in the reipn of Cyrus? — 2. What it 
said of Cyrus? What did lie do? What edict did he publish?— 3. How do Herodotue 
and Xenophon differ in their accounts of Cyrus? — 4. W r ho succeeded Cyrus? Hew 
did he make himself muster of Pelusium? On the death of Cambysesjf who usurped 
the throne? / , _ 

2* % V 



18 



PERSIA. 



The history of Persia, from the reign of this soAereign until the 
overthrow of the monarchy, is much connected with that of Greece. 

5. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes I., who conducted 
the second invasion of Greece, but returned to his own dominions 
in shame and disgrace, alter sustaining a series of defeats, with 
immense loss. He was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes, who 
enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. The only sovereigns of dis- 
tinction who reigned after this period, were Artaxerxes II., and 
Darius Codomanus, the last of the Persian monarchs. Codo- 
manus was defeated by Alexander the Great, and finally assas- 
sinated : and with his death the ancient empire terminated, A. C. 
336. 

6. Antiquities. The government of Persia was an absolute 
monarchy; the crown was hereditary, and generally bestowed on 
the eldest son of the deceased king. The sovereigns received 
almost divine honors from their subjects. No one could approach 
the seat of majesty without prostrating himself upon tne ground, 
or remain in his presence without holding his hands within his 
sleeves; a violation of this ceremony was punished with death. 
The royal palace at Persepolis was extremely magnificent; the 
ceiling and walls of the apartments were covered with ivory, 
silver, gold or amber; the throne was also of fine gold adorned 
with precious stones. 

7. The Persians are said to have paid more particular regard 
to the education of their children than any other nation. We are 
told that a son was never admitted into the presence of his father, 
until he arrived at the age of five years, lest the parent might be 
too heavily afflicted by the loss, if the child should die before that 
period. At the age of five years, the children, at least of the 
higher order of the state, were placed under the care of learned 
and virtuous masters, who bestowed on their pupils the utmost 
attention. 

8. The mode of punishment among the Persians was generally 
severe: it consisted in cutting oft* the right hand, decapitation, 
pressing to death between two large stones, and the like. The 
most severe and inhuman was that of fastening the culprit in 
such a manner that he was unable to move hand or foot. His 
face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared with honey, 
which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to torment 
him; th^ executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp instru- 
ments into his eyes, to receive nourishment, for the purpose of 
prolonging his agonies. We are told of one victim, who lived 
seventeen days under these torments. The Persians were trained 
to all the military exercises, but particularly to the use of the bow. 
They never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem inde- 
pendent of their valor. 

9. Their religion was idolatrous, but not so gross as that of 
some of the surrounding nations. They professed to worship the 

5. What is said of Xerxes? Who was the last of the Persian monarchs. and what 
was his end? — 6. AVhat is said of the government of Persia? and of those wYio approached 
the sovereign? Describe the palace at Persepolis? — 7. To what did they pay pecu 
liar regard? WVVhat custom prevailed?— 8. What is said of the mode of punishment? 
Describe one ttvere form? 9. What is said of their religion ? What do they adore? 



PHOENICIANS. EGYPT. 19 

one all-wise and omnipotent God; but they held fire to be holy, 
and the purest symbol of the divine nature. In connection with 
this they adored the sun, and paid a superstitious regard to other 
elements, such as the earth, air and water. In ancient times they 
were destitute of temples, and erected altars for the preservation 
of the sacred fire, on the tops of the mountains. At length Zoro- 
aster persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over 
each a pyreum or fire temple. The priests were called Magi, 
and were held in great esteem on account of their learning. 



PHOENICIANS. 

1. The Phoenicians were among the most remarkable and early 
civilized nations of antiquity. They were styled Canaanites in 
the scripture, and seem to have been a commercial people in the 
time of Abraham. The two principal cities, and the most ancient 
we read of in history, were Tyre and Sidon, The Phoenicians 
are reputed inventors of glass, purple, letters, and coinage; they 
are regarded as the earliest navigators and merchants in the 
world; they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the 
Mediterranean, but even visited the shores of Britain, from which 
they exported tin. 

2. To Hiram, king of Tyre, both David and Solomon applied, 
v hen proposing to build the temple at Jerusalem; he furnished 
them not only with precious materials, but also with a great num- 
ber of workmen. They sent out a number of colonies to Cyprus , 
Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain; the foundation of 
Carthage is attributed to Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of 
Tyre, with a company of adventurers. The city of Tyre sus- 
tained two memorable sieges and was twice taken: first by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and again by Alexander the Great. 



EGYPT. 
SECTION I. 



1. Egypt holds a conspicuous place in history, on account of its 
early civilization and high attainment in the arts. It was con- 
sidered by the ancients as the most renowned school of wisdom 
and politics, and the source from which most of the arts and 
sciences are derived. Even the most illustrious men of Greece, 
such as Homer and Plato, Lycurgus and Solon, travelled into 

1. "What is said of the Phoenicians? Of what were they inventors?— 2. What is 
eaici of Hiram? Where did they send colonies? What is said of Tyre? 
1. What is aaid of Egypt? How was it considered by the ancients ! 



20 EGYPT. 

Egypt to complete their studies and draw from thence, whatever 
was rare and valuable in learning. 

2. The ancient history of this country is greatly involved in 
obscurity ; historians, however, unanimously agree that Mizraim, 
the son of Ham, was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy ; he 
is supposed to be the same as Menes, who is said to have insti- 
tuted the worship of the gods, and the ceremonies of the sacri- 
fices ; he was succeeded in the throne by his posterity, for several 
generations. Egypt was next governed by a race of foreign 
princes from Arabia, styled Shepherd Kings, who invaded the 
country, and retained possession of the greater portion of it for 
the space of two hundred and sixty years. 

3. The ancient Egyptians seem never to have been a warlike 
nation. The only king of the country whose name stands re- 
corded as a great conqueror, is Sesostris, who is said to heave 
maintained a numerous army, and conquered a great part of Asia : 
but little is known of his achievements, or the extent of his con- 
quests. Towards the close of his life, he is said to have renounced 
the profession of arms, and to have devoted himself to the inter- 
nal improvement of his kingdom. Having become blind in his 
old age, he died by his own hand, after a reign of thirty-three 
years. 

4. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished in the 
history of this country, was Neekus, styled in the scripture, 
Pharaoh-Necho. He patronised navigation, and fitted out a 
fleet, which, leaving the Red Sea, sailed around the coast of 
Africa, and returned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar ; 
he waged a successful war against the Medes and Babylonians, 
and defeated Josiah, king of Judah, in the battle Megiddo, and 
imposed an annual tribute upon the country. 

5. Egypt was invaded by the Persians under Camhyses, about 
the year 525 before the Christian era; the cities of Pelusium and 
Memphis were taken, and the whole country reduced to a pro- 
vince of the Persian monarchy. Egypt was wrested from the do- 
minion of Persia by Alexander the Great, and after his death it 
fell to the share of Ptolemy ; under him and his successors, the 
country regained its ancient lustre, and rose to eminence in 
science and commerce; the dynasty of the Ptolemies continued 
from the death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra, embracing a 
period of two hundred and ninety-three years. 

6. Ptolemy Lagvs, surnamed also Soter, is said to have been 
the natural son of Philip, king of Macedon, and half brother of 
Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexander's death, he was 
governor of Egypt, and afterwards became king of the country. 
tie was a man of great ability, equally eminent as a general and 
a statesman, distinguished for his learning, and a munificent 
patron of literature. 

He founded the famous library of Alexandria, established a 

2. Who was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy? By whom was Egypt next 
governed ?— 3. What is said of the ancient Egyptians? of Sesostris ?— 4. Who was 
the next sovereign, and what is said of him ? — 5. Who invaded Egypt? By whom 
was i? wrested from Ihe Persians? How long did the dynasty of the Ptolemies con- 
tinue. ?— 6. What is said of Ptc.emy Lagus ? What did he establish? 



EGYPT. 21 

museum or academy, and erected the celebrated watch-tower of 
Pharos, which was reckoned by some as one of the seven won- 
ders of the world. He built a number of new cities, encouraged 
commerce and agriculture, and conquered Syria. He died altera 
prosperous reign of thirty-nine years. 

7. Ptolemy Lagus was succeeded by his son Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, whose reign, like that of his father, was prosperous and 
useful. He patronised commerce and navigation, founded several 
cities, and erected magnificent buildings. His court was a seat 
of learning, politeness, and the arts, and was resorted to by men 
of genius. During his reign, the celebrated version of the Old 
Testament into Greek, called the Septuagint, was made for the 
use of the Jews who were settled at that time in Alexandria. 

8. Ptolemy Evergetes, the son of the late monarch, who suc- 
ceeded to the throne, was a warlike prince, but also a patron of 
learning, and spared no pains to enrich his library. In the early 
part of his reign, he carried on a severe though successful war 
with Antiochus, king of Syria. He was succeeded by his son 
Ptolemy Philopator, a sanguinary tyrant, whose reign was dis- 
tinguished for a cruel persecution of the Jews. Having invaded 
Judea, and advanced as far as Jerusalem, he attempted to enter 
by force into the holy place of the Jewish temple, into which 
none but the high-priest was allowed to enter, and that only once 
a year. Being forcibly prevented from committing this sacrilege, 
he returned to Egypt, and resolved to wreak his vengeance on 
the Jews, who had enjoyed the favor of his predecessors. 

9. He published a decree, that all the Jews within his domi- 
nions should abjure their religion and sacrifice to the gods of 
Egypt, under the severest penalties; however, only about nine 
hundred were found to apostatize. After this, he ordered all the: 
Jews in Alexandria to assemble in a place of public diversion, 
called Hippodrome, where he had collected five hundred elephantn 
for the destruction of that devoted people ; but the enraged ani- 
mals, rushing among the crowd, crushed to death a greater num- 
ber of the spectators than of the Jews; yet it is computed that 
about forty thousand of the latter perished on that occasion. 

10. The history of the remaining Ptolemies presents little that 
js interesting; their reigns, for the most, were unhappy, abound- 
ing in crimes and calamities. Ptolemy Dionysius was the last 
king of Egypt; he succeeded to the throne at the early age of 
thirteen years; he reigned in conjunction with his sister, thecele- 
orated Cleopatra, who aspired to undivided authority. A war 
ensued, in which Ptolemy was slain, and Cleopatra assumed the 
sole government. Her history is connected with that of Julius 
C&sar and Mark Antonys she finally caused her own death by 
poison, in order to avoid being led captive, to Rome to grace the 
triumph of Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a Roman 
province. 

7. By whomwas Ptolemy Lagus succeeded? What is said of him?— 8. What '9 
(raid of Ptolemy Everpfetes ? By whom was he succeeded? What did he attempt * 
—9. What did he publish ? How did he attempt to destroy the Jews ? 10. Who waj 
the last king of Egrpt? What is said of Cleopatra? What did Egypt become? 



22 EGYPT. 

SECTION IT. 

Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. 

1. A striking resemblance with regard to government, reli- 
gion, customs and character, is said to exist between the ancient 
Egyptians and many of the oriental nations, particularly the 
Chinese. The government was an hereditary monarchy, but the 
power of the sovereign was restrained by the influence of the 
priests. At daybreak in the morning, the king arose and read 
the several letters he received the preceding day. He then went 
to the temple to attend the offering of the sacrifice, and to assist 
at the prayers pronounced aloud by the high-priest, who invoked 
the blessing of the gods upon the prince, that he might govern 
his people with clemency and justice. The laws prescribed not 
only the quality but also quantity of food for the royal table \ as 
for the quality, it was of the most common kind, because eating, 
in Egypt, was designed not to please the palate, but to satisfy 
the cravings of nature. 

2. The laws of Egypt were generally based upon the strictest 
justice. Wilful murder was punished with death, whate^ er 
might be the condition of the murdered person, whether he v as 
free-born or otherwise. Perjury was also punished with dea h, 
because that crime insulted the majesty of the gods, by invoki: % 
their name to a falsehood, and broke the strongest ties of hunut* 
society, namely, sincerity and veracity. No man was allowed 1 > 
be useless to the state ; but every one was obliged to enter his 
name on the public register, and give an account of his profession 
and means ot support. Polygamy was allowed in Egypt except 
to the priests, who could only marry but one woman. An unusual 
custom prevailed among the Egyptians, which permitted the mar- 
riage of brother and sister ; hence we find that the queens of the 
Ptolemies were generally their sisters. 

3. In Egypt, the greatest respect was paid to old age. The 
young were obliged to rise up for the old, and on every occasion 
to resign to them the most honorable seats. The virtue in the 
highest esteem among the Egyptians, was gratitude; and it has 
been said of them, that they were the most grateful of men. But 
it was particularly towards their kings that they prided them- 
selves on evincing their gratitude ; they honored them while 
living, as so many visible representations of the deity, and after 
their death, lamented them as the fathers of their country. 

4. Never were any people more superstitious than the Egyp- 
tians; they had a great number of gods of different orders and 
degrees; among these, Osiris and Isis were the most universally 
adored. Besides these gods, they worshipped the ox, the wolf, 
the dog, the crocodile, the ibis or cat, and many other degrading 

1. What is paid of the manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians? Of the go- 
vernment? Of the king? What did the laws prescribe?— 2. On what were the 
laws based ? What was the punishment of murder ? Of perjury ? What was every 
man obliged to do? What was allowed ? What custom prevailed ? — 3. To what was 
great respect paid ? What virtue was held in the highest esteem ? — 4. Besides Oairi* 
and Isis, what did the Egyptians worship 1 



EGYPT. 23 

objects It was death for any one^to kill one of these animals 
voluntarily. Piodorus relates the circumstance of a Roman, who 
fell a victim to the fury of the populace of Alexandria, for having 
accidentally killed a cat. The Egyptians held the doctrine or 
the transmigration of souls; and believed that at the death of a 
man, his soul entered into some other human body; and that if he 
had been vicious, his soul was confined in the body of some beast 
to expiate his former transgressions; and that after some centu- 
ries it would again animate another human body. 

5. No people paid greater respect to the bodies of the dead than 
the Egyptians. As soon as any person in a family died, all the 
relations and friends laid aside their usual habits and put on 
mourning, which they continued to wear for forty days or longer, 
according to the quality of the person. The body was then em- 
balmed, by which process it was preserved from decay; after this, 
the corpse was put into a kind of an open chest, and placed upright 
against the wall of the dwelling or sepulchre; so that the children 
seeing the bodies of their ancestors thus preserved, recalled to 
mind those virtues for which the public had honored them, and 
were excited to imitate their example. 

6. The power of the laws extended even beyond the grave ; 
because, before anyone could be admitted into the sacred asylum 
of the tomb, he was obliged to undergo a solemn trial; and this 
circumstance, in Egyptian funerals, is one of the most remarkable 
to be found in ancient history. The whole life of each person, 
after death, was strictly examined; and if found to be virtuous, 
his body was embalmed with every mark of respect, and deposited 
in a sepulchre; but if his life had been vicious, or if he had died in 
debt, he was left unburied, and was supposed to be deprived of 
future happiness. The kings themselves were not exempted from 
this trial after death; if their lives were vicious, they were deprived 
of funeral rights and the honor of the sepulchre. 



SECTION III. 

The Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake o/Mseris, fyc. 

1. The Pyramids of Egypt are the most celebrated of those 
works of grandeur for which that country has been renowned. 
Of these Pyramids, there were three near the city of Memphis, 
more famous than the rest; one of which was justly ranked among 
the seven wonders of the world. According to several ancient 
authors, each side of the base measured eight hundred feet, and 
as many feet in height. A hundred thousand men are said to 
have been employed for the space of twenty years in erecting this 
vast edifice. The Pyramids were designed as tombs for the 

AVhat does Diodorus relate ? What doctrine did they hold ? — 5. When a member 
of a family died, what did the relations do ? Describe the ceremony of embalming. — 
6. What is said of the power of the laws ? If a man had lived vicious, or died in debt, 
what was done ? 

1 What is said of the Pyramids? What was the length of each side of the base of 
the Pyramid near Memphis ? For what were they designed? 



24 EGYPT 

kings, and there is still to be seen in the middle of the largest, an 
empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, about three feet 
wide and six feet long. 

2. The Labyrinth of Egypt, was an enormous structure of mar 
ble, built under ground; it comprised twelve palaces with a com 
munication leading to each other, and divided into fifteen hundred 
rooms or apartments. These subterraneous structures were de- 
signed as a burying -pi ace for kings, and also for keeping the sacred 
crocodiles. The Obelisks with which Egypt abounded, were 
quadrangular spires, terminating in a point, often wonderful on 
account of their beauty and height. Sesostris erected two neai 
the cityof Heliopolis, each one hundred and eighty feet in height. 
Several of these obelisks, with immense labour, were transported 
to Rome, where they form at the present day the chief ornaments 
of that city. Many of them were covered with hieroglyphics, 
that is, mystical characters used by the Egyptians before the 
invention of letters, and afterwards to conceal the mysteries of 
their theology. 

3. The noblest and the most wonderful of all the structures of 
the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Maeris, which Herodotus 
considers as even superior to the Pyramids. This lake was in 
circumference about one hundred and eighty French leagues, and 
three hundred feet deep. Two pyramids, on each of which was 
placed a colossal statue, seated upon a throne, raised their heads 
to the height of three hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, above 
the surface of the water. It is generally believed that this im- 
mense reservoir, with its pyramids, was completed in the reign 
of one monarch, from whom it takes its name; and was designed 
to regulate the inundations of the Nile. 

When that river rose too high and fatal consequences seemed 
likely to follow, the water was let into the lake and covered the 
lands no longer than was necessary to enrich them. On the con- 
trary, when the inundation was too low and threatened a famine, 
a sufficient quantity of water was let out of the lake upon the land. 

4. The ruins of a few of the ancient cities and palaces of Egypt 
still excite the wonder and admiration of the traveller. The glory 
of Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt, famous for its hundred 
gates, was the theme of admiration of poets and historians at a 
period prior to the commencement of authentic history. Strabo 
and Diodorus describe it under the name of Diospolis, and give 
such magnificent descriptions of its monuments as to cause their 
fidelity to be called in question, until the observations of modern 
travellers have proved their accounts to have fallen short of the 
reality. The ruins of one of the palaces of this city are especially 
admired, and seem to have remained only to eclipse the glory of 
the most pompous edifices of modern times. There were four 
avenues of great extent which led to four porticoes of amazing 

2. What was the Labyrinth? For whnt designed? What is said of the Obelisks! 
With what were ninny of them covered? — 3. What was the noblest work? What 
was its circumference? What was in the midst of the hike? For what was it 
designed? — 4. What is said of the ruins of cities. &c? Describe Tliebes ? Describe 
one-of the palaces of this city * AVliat is said of Memphis ? 



GREECE. 25 

height ; they were bounded on each side with statues, composed 
of materials as rare and extraordinary as their size was remark- 
able Within the middle of this stately palace, there was a hall 
supported by one hundred and twenty pillars, thirty-six feet in 
circumference and of proportionable height, which the lapse of so 
many ages has not been able to demolish. Before the time of 
Herodotus, Memphis had supplanted Thebes, which seems to have 
been particularly noted for its stately temples, and among them, 
that of the god Apis was the most remarkable. 



GREECE. 

SECTION I. 

1. Among the various nations of antiquity, Greece deservedly 
holds the most distinguished rank, both for the patriotism, genius 
and learning of its inhabitants, as well as the high state of perfec- 
tion to which they carried the arts and sciences. 

Greece formerly comprised various small independent states, 
differing from each other in the forms of their government, and in 
the character of the people, but still united in a confederacy for 
their mutual defence, by the counsel of Arnphictyons, and by their 
common language, religion and public games. 

2. The ancient name of Greece was Hellas, and the inhabitants 
were called Hellenes ; but by the poets they were distinguished 
by different names; such as the Danai, Pelasgi, Argivi, Achivi, 
&c. The original inhabitants, who were generally considered as 
the descendants of Javan, the son of Japhet, lived in the lowest 
state of barbarism, dwelling in huts, feeding ou acorns and berries, 
and clothing themselves in the skins of wild beasts, when Cecrops 
with a colony from Egypt, and Cadmus with a body of Phcem- 
cians, landed in Greece, and planted on its shores the first rudi- 
ments of civilization. 

The early form of government of Greece was a limited mon- 
archy, which was finally abolished, and a republican form generally 
prevailed. 

3. The history of Greece may be divided into- two parts ; 1st, 
the period of uncertain history, which extends from the earliest 
accounts of the country, to the first Persian war in the year 490 
B. C. : 2d, the period of authentic history extending from the 
invasion by Persia, to the final subjugation of Greece by the 
Romans, A. 0. 146. The first period is generally reckoned from 
the foundation of Sicyon, the most ancient kingdom of Greece, 
and comprises a space of about sixteen hundred years. This 
long succession of ages, though greatly involved in obscurity and 

1. What is said of Greece? What did it formerly comprise? How were they 
united ? — 2. What was its ancient name ? From whom were the inhabitants descended* 
What v/as their condition when Lecropi landed in Greece ? — 3. How is the history 
of Greece divided I How do these periods extend ? What is said of the first period ? 



26 GllEEOE. 

fable, is still interspersed with several interesting particulars: it 
contains no records, however, that properly deserve the name of 
history. 

4. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this 
period, from the Chronicle of Faros, preserved among the Arwi- 
delian marbles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle Ins 
been much questioned of late ; but still, by many, it is thought to 
be worthy of considerable credit. It fixes the dates of the most 
important events in the history of Greece, from the time of Ce~ 
crops down to the "age of Alexander the Great. 

5. Sicyon, the capital of the ancient kingdom of that name, 
was founded by JEgialus; Argos by Inachus, the last of the Ti- 
tans; Athens, which afterwards bore such a distinguished part in 
the history of Greece, was founded by Cecrops, with a colony 
from Egypt. He was an eminent legislator, and instituted the 
court of Areopagus. Thebes was founded by Cadmus ^ who is 
said to have introduced letters into Greece from Phoenicia; the 
alphabet, however, only consisted of sixteen letters, and the mode 
of writing was alternately from right to left, and from left to 
right. 

6. In the time of Cranaus, who succeeded Cecrops^ happened 
the deluge of Deucalion: this deluge, though much magnified by 
the poets, was probably only a partial inundation. 

The other memorable institutions that distinguish this period, 
were the Eleusinian mysteries, the Olympic and other games, of 
which we will speak hereafter: also the marvellous exploits of 
Hercides and Theseus. 



SECTION II. 

The Fabulous and Heroic Ages. 

1. The fabulous age comprises the period from the foundation 
of the principal cities, to the commencement of civilization, ard 
the introduction of letters and arts into Greece. The first great 
enterprise undertaken by the Greeks, was the Argonautic expe- 
dition, which appears in its details to partake more of fable than 
of history. It was commanded by Jason, the son of the king ol 
Iolchos, who was accompanied by many of the most illustrious 
men of Greece, among whom were Hercules, Theseus, Castor 
and Pollux, Orpheus, iEsculapius the physician, and Chiron the 
astronomer. 

2. They sailed from Iolchos, in Thessaly, to Colchis, on the 
eastern coast of the Euxine Sea : they received the name Argo- 
nauts from the ship Argo in which they sailed, said to have been 
the first sea vessel ever built. This famous voyage, which was 

4. From what does the Grecian history derive authenticity ? Of what does this 
chronicle fix the :iate ? — 5. By whom was Sicyon founded ? Argos ? Alliens ? Thebes? 
What is said of Cadmus ? — 6. In the time of Cranaus, what happened ? What insti- 
tutions distinguished this period? 

1. Whut do the fabulous ages comprise? What was the first great en erprise ? Who 
ionur.auded it? and who accompanied hin. ' -2 From where did thev sail? 



GREECE. 27 

probably a military and mercantile adventure, is commonly re- 
presented to have been undertaken tor the purpose of recovering 
the golden iieece of a ram, which originally belonged to their 
country. The fleece is pretended to have been guarded by bulls 
that breathed lire, and by a dragon that never slept. 

3. The Heroic Age was particularly distinguished by the Tro- 
jan war, the history of which rests on the authority of Homer, 
and forms the subject of his Iliad, the noblest poem of antiquity. 
According to the poet, Hellen, tiie daughter of Tyndarus, king 
of Sparta, was reputed the most beautiful woman of her age, and 
her hand was solicited by the most illustrious princes of Greece. 
Her father bound all her suitors by a solemn oath, that they would 
abide by the choice that Hellen should make of one among them ; 
and that, should she be taken from the arms of her husband, they 
would assist, to the utmost of their power, to recover her. 

4. Hellen gave her hand to Menelaus, and after her nuptials, 
Tyndarus her father resigned the crown to his son-in-law. Paris, 
the son of Priam, king of Troy, a powerful city founded by Bar 
danus, having adjudged the prize of superior beauty to Venus, in 
preference to Juno and Minerva, was promised by her the most 
beautiful woman of the age for his wife. Shortly after this event, 
Paris visited Sparta, where he was kindly received by Menelaus; 
but in return for the kind hospitality tendered to him, he per- 
suaded Hellen to elope with him to Troy, and carried oft* with hei 
a considerable amount of trea.su re. 

5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the Trojan 
war. A confederacy was immediately formed by the princes of 
Greece, agreeable to their engagement, to avenge the outrage 
An army of one hundred thousand men was conveyed in a fleet 
of twelve hundred vessels, to the Trojan coast. Agamemnon, 
king of Argos,. brother of Menelaus, was selected as commander 
in-chief. Some of the other princes most distinguished in this 
war, were Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks; also Jijax, Mene- 
laus, Ulysses, Nestor, and Diomedes. 

6. The Trojans were commanded by Hector, the son of Priam, 
assisted by Paris, Deiphobus, JEneas* and Sarpedon. After a 
siege of ten years, the city was taken by stratagem, plundered ot 
its wealth, and burnt to the ground. The venerable Priam, king 
of Troy, was slain, and all his family led into captivity. About 
eighty years after the destruction of Troy, the civil war of the 
Heraclidae began; it is usually called the return of the Heraclidae 
into Peloponnesus. Hercules* king of Mycenae, a city of Pelo- 
ponnesus, was banished from his country with all his family, while 
me crown was seized by Atreus, the son of Pelops. After the 
lapse of about a century, the descendants of Hercules returned 
to Peloponnesus, and having expelled the inhabitants, again took 
possession of the country. 

For what was this famous voyage undertaken ?— 3. For what is the Heroic Age 
distinguished? What is said of Helen? How did her father bind all her suitors? — 
4. To whom did Helen give her hand? What is said of Paris?— 5. What did this 
treachery produce 1 Who was commander-in chief of the Grecian forces? Mention 
th»» other princes —6. By whom were the Trojans commanded ? What is said of the 
city? Of Priam? About eighty years after this, what happened? What is said of 
Hercules? 



28 GREECE. 

SECTION III. 

Republic of Spuria. 

1. Sparta, or Lacedammn, was the capital of Lacoma, in the 
southern part of Peloponnesus. After the return of the Hera- 
clidse, the government was administered by the two sons of Aiis- 
todemus, who reigned jointly, and this double monarchy was 
transmitted to the descendants of each for a period of eight hun- 
dred and eighty years. 

2. This radical principle of disunion, and consequently of 
anarchy, made the want of a regular system of laws severely- 
felt. Lycurgus, the brother of one of the kings of Sparta, a man 
distinguished alike for his great abilities and stern integrity, was 
invested, by the united voice of the sovereigns and the people, 
with the important duty of framing a new constitution for his 
country. The arduous task being at length completed, produced 
not only an entire change in the form of government, but also in 
the manners of the people. He instituted a senate, elective, 
consisting of twenty-eight members, whose office was to preserve 
a just balance between the power of the kings and that of the 
people. Nothing could come before the assembly of the people 
which had not received the previous consent of the senate; and, 
on the other hand, no action of the senate was effectual without 
the sanction of the people. The kings were continued, but were 
nothing more than hereditary presidents of the senate, and gene- 
rals of the army. 

3. Lycurgus divided the territory of the republic into thirty- 
nine thousand equal portions among the free citizens; and for the 
purpose of banishing luxury, commerce was abolished ; gold and 
silver coin was prohibited, and iron money was substituted as a 
medium of exchange ; a uniformity of dress was established, and 
all the citizens, not excepting the kings, were required to take 
their principal meals at the public tables, from which all luxury 
and excess were excluded, and a kind of black broth was the 
principal article of food. Among some of the admirable cere- 
monies which prevailed at these public meals, the following is 
interesting and instructive. When the assembly was seated, the 
oldest man present, pointing to the door, said, " No word spoken 
here, goes out there." This wise regulation produced^ mutual 
confidence, and rendered them unrestrained in conversation. 

4. The institutions of Lycurgus, though in many respects ad 
mirable, had still many defects. Infants, shortly after their birth, 
underwent an examination, and those that were well formed were 
delivered to public nurses ; and at the age of seven years, they 
were introduced into the public schools; but all those who were 
deformed or sickly, were inhumanly exposed to perish. The 

1. WTiat was Sparta? What is said of the government after the return of the Her?.- 
ehdar? — 2. What is said of Lycurgus ? W^ith what was he invested? AVhat ilid he 
institute ? What is said of the kings ? — 3. How did he divide the territory ? What is 
said of commerce ? Of gold and silver? Of iron money? O/ dress? Of ] ublic 
tables? What was said by the oldest man present?— 4. What 't> eaid of the institu 
tioriE of Lycurgus ? Of infants ? 



GREECE. 29 

young were taught to pay the greatest respect to the aged, and 
cherish an ardent love for their country; the profession of arms 
was inculcated as the great business of life. Letters were only 
taught as far as they were useful ; hence the Spartans, while they 
were distinguished for many heroic virtues, were never eminent 
for learning; and no productions have been transmitted to mo- 
dern times written by a native of Sparta. They were accus- 
tomed to speak in brief sentences, so that this style of speaking, 
even at the present time, is called after them, laconic, Laconia 
being one of the names of their country. 

5. The youth were early inured to hardship; they were accus- 
tomed to sleep on rushes, trained to the athletic exercises, and 
only supplied with plain and scanty food. They were even taught 
to steal whatever they could, provided they could accomplish the 
theft without being detected. Plutarch relates the fact of a boy 
who had stolen a fox and concealed it under his garments, and 
who actually suffered the animal to tear out his bowels, rather 
than discover the theft. The manners of the Lacedsemonian wo- 
men were highly indelicate; they were destitute of the milder 
virtues that most adorn the female character. Their education 
was calculated to give them a masculine energy, and to fill them 
with admiration of military glory. Mothers rather rejoiced than 
wept, when their sens fell nobly in battle. " Return with you! 
shield or on your shield," was the injunction of a Spartan mother 
to her son, when he was going to meet the enemy : intimating 
that he should conquer or die. 

6. For five hundred years the institutions of Lycurgus conti- 
nued in force. During this period, the influence of Sparta was 
felt throughout Greece; her government acquired solidity, while 
the other states were torn by domestic dissensions. In the pro- 
cess of time, the severe manners and rigid virtues of her citizens 
began to relax ; changes in her laws and institutions were finallj 
introduced, particularly during the reign of Lysander, whose 
conquests filled the country with wealth. 

From this period luxury and avarice began to prevail, until 
Sparta, with the other states of Greece, sunk under the dominion 
■>f Philip, king of Macedon. 



SECTION IV. 

The Bepublic of Athens. 

1, Athens, the capital of Attica, was distinguished for its com- 
merce, wealth and magnificence, also as the seat of learning and 
the arts. The last king of Athens was Codrus, who sacrificed 
himself for the good of his country, in a war with the Ileraclidse. 

What were the young taught to pay? What is said of letters? How were they 

accustomed to fpeak? — 5. What is said of the youth? Of the manners of the women. 

What ia said of mothers?— G How long did the, institutions of Lycurgus continue? 

In the process of time, what took phce? What is said of Sparta from this period? 

1. For what was Athens distinguished ? 

o* 



30 GREECE. 

After his death, no one being deemed worthy to succeed him, the 
regal government was abolished, and the state was governed by mag- 
istrates, styled archons. The office was at first for life; it was after- 
wards reduced to a period of ten years ; and finally the archons, nine 
in number, were annually elected, and were possessed of equal 
authority. 

2. As these changes produced convulsions in the state, and 
rendered the condition of the people miserable, the Athenians 
appointed Draco, a man of stern and rigid principles, to prepare 
a code of written laws. His laws were characterized by extreme 
severity; they punished every crime with death. Draco being 
asked why he was so severe in his punishment, replied that the 
smallest offence deserved death, and that he had no higher pen- 
alty for the greatest crime. The severity of these laws prevent 
ed them from being fully executed, and at length caused them 
to be entirely abolished after a period of one hundred and fifty 
years. 

3. Solon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, being raised tu 
the archonship, was intrusted with the care of framing for his 
country a new system of laws. His disposition was mild and 
condescending; and, without attempting to change the manneis 
of his countrymen, he endeavoured to accommodate his system 1o 
their prevailing customs, to moderate their dissensions, to restrain 
their passions, and to open a field for the growth of virtue. Of 
his laws he said, " If they are not the best possible, they are the 
best the Athenians are capable of receiving." 

4. Solon's system divided the people into four classes, accord 
ing to their wealth. To the three first, composed of the richei 
citizens, he intrusted all the offices of the commonwealth. The 
fourth class, wLich was more numerous than the other three, hud 
an equal right of suffrage in the public assembly, where all laws 
were framed and measures of state decreed : by this regulation, 
the balance of power was thrown in favour of the people. He 
instituted a senate composed of four hundred, and afterwards 
increased it to five hundred persons. He restored the court ot 
Areopagus, which had greatly fallen into disrepute, and commit- 
ted to it the supreme administration of justice. Commerce and 
agriculture were encouraged; industry and economy enforced; 
and the father who had taught his son no trade could not claim 
a support from him in his old age. 

5. The manners of the Athenians formed a striking contrast 
with those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens, the arts were 
nighly esteemed; at Sparta, they were despised and neglected ; 
at Athens, peace was the natural state of the republic, and the 
refined enjoyments of life, the aim of its citizens; Sparta was 
entirely a military establishment; her people made war the great 
business of life. Luxury characterized the Athenian, frugality 

After the tlealh of Codrus. howwss the slate governed? What is said of the office l- 
2. What is said of Draco? How were his laws distinguished? What reply did he 
make when asked, why he was so severe? — 3. What is said of Solon? What did he 
ifideavonr to accomplish? Of. his laws, what did he say? — 4. What is said of Solor's 
system? Of the fourth class? What did he institute? What is said of commerce, fee. ?— 
5 What was the striking contrast between the Athenians and Laeedeemonians ? 



GREECE. 31 

the Spartan. They were both, nowever, equally jealous of their 
liberty and equally brave in war. 

6. Before the death of Solon, Pisistratus, a man of great wealth 
and eloquence, by courting the popular favour raised himself to 
the sovereign, power, which he and his sons retained for fifty 
years. 

He governed with great ability; encouraged the arts and sci- 
ences, aud is said to have founded the first public library known 
in the world, and first collected the poems of Homer into one 
volume, which before that time were repeated in detached por- 
tions. 

Pisistratus transmitted his power to his sons Hippias, and Hip- 
parchus. They governed for some time with wisdom and mode- 
ration, but having at length abused their power, a conspiracy was 
funned against them, and their government was overthrown by 
Harmodius, and Aristogiton. Bipparclms, was slain ; Hippias, 
fled to Darius, king of Persia, who was then meditating the inva- 
sion of Greece; aud was subsequently killed in the battle of Ma- 
faihon, fighting against his countrymen 



SECTION V. 

From the Invasion of Greece by the Persians, to the 2 J eloponne- 
sian War. From P. C. 490 to 431. 

I.The period from the first invasion to the beginning of the 
Peloponnesian war, is esteemed the most glorious age of Greece. 
The series of victories obtained by the inhabitants over the Per- 
sians are the most splendid recorded in history. The immediate 
cause which led to the invasion of Greece, seems to have been to 
avenge the aid which the Athenians gave to the people of Ionia, 
who attempted to throw off the yoke of Persia. 

2. Darius, king of Persia, having reduced the Ionians, next 
turned his arms against the Greeks their allies, with the design 
of making entire conquest of Greece. He despatched heralds to 
each of the Grecian states, demanding earth and water, which 
was an acknowledgment of his supremacy. Thebes and several 
of the other cities submitted to the demand; but AJiens and 
Sparta indignantly refused, and seizing the heralds, they cast one 
into a pit and another into a well, and told them to take there 
their earth and water. 

3. Darius now commenced his hostile attack both by sea and 
'and. The first Persian fleet, under the command of Marclonius, 
vas wrecked in doubling the promontory of Athos, with a loss of 

no less than three hundred vessels: a second, of six hundred sail, 
ravaged the Grecian islands; while an immense army, consisting 

6. What is said of Pisistratus? How did he govern? What is said of Htpparehua 
and Hippius? 

1. What is said of this period? What was the immediate cause which led to the 
invasion of Greece? — 2. Whit is said of Darius? How did Athens and Sparta treat 
the heralds ?— ,3. What is said of the first Persian fleet ? What was the number of" Urn 
second iiet;t ? 



32 GREECE. 

of one hundred and ten thousand men. poured down impetuously 
on Attica. This formidable host was met by the Athenian army 
under the command of Miltiades. on the plains of Marathon, 
where the Persians were signally defeated and fled with precipi- 
tation to their ships. The loss of the Persians amounted to six 
thousand three hundred ; while the Athenian army, which did not 
exceed ten thousand men, lost only one hundred and ninety -two 
A soldier covered with wounds ran to Athens with the news, and 
having only strength sufficient to say, "Rejoice! the victory is 
ours/' fell down and expired. 

4. Miltiades, the illustrious general by whose valor this great 
victory was gained, received the most inhuman treatment from 
his ungrateful countrymen. Being accused of treason for an un- 
successful attack on the isle of Paros, he was condemned to death; 
this punishment, however, was commuted into a fine of fifty 
talents, (about fifty thousand dollars.) In consequence of his 
being unable to pay this amount, he was cast into prison, where 
he died in a few days of the wounds he received in the defence 
of his ( ountry. 

5. The Athenians at this time were divided into two parties, 
under their respective leaders — Aristides, the advocate of aiis- 
tocracy, and Themistocles of democracy. Aristides, who on 
account of his integrity was called the just, through the intrigies 
of his great rival, was banished for ten years by the Ostracism 
It happened while the people were giving their votes for his exile., 
that a certain citizen who was unable to write and who did not 
know him personally, brought him a shell and asked him to write 
the name of Aristides upon it. " Why what harm has Aristides 
ever done your" said he. il No harm at all," replied the citizen, 
"but I can-not bear to hear him continually called the just." 
Aristides smiled, and taking the shell wrote his own name upon 
it and went into banishment. 

6. On the death of Darius, Xerxes his son, who succeeded to 
the Peisian throne, resolved to prosecute the war which his father 
had undertaken against Greece. Having spent four years in 
making the necessary preparations, he collected an army, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, exceeding two millions of fighting men; and 
including the women and retinue of attendants, the whole multi- 
tude is said to have exceeded five millions of persons. His fleet 
consisted of more than twelve hundred galleys of wa*\ besides 
three thousand transports of various kinds. 

7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, he caused a canal, naviga- 
ble for his largest vessels, to be cut through the isthmus which 
joins that mountain to the continent, and for the conveyance of 
his army, he ordered two bridges of boats to be extended across 
the Hellespont, at a point where it measures seven furlongs in 
breadth. The first of these bridges was destroyed by a tempest, 
on which account, Xerxes, in transports of rage, ordered the sea 

By whom was this host met? What was the loss of the Persians? Of the Athenian 
army? "What is said of an Athenian soldier? — 4. What is related of Milt/ades. th? 
llustrious general? — 0. What is said of Xerxes? What was the numher of his army? 
Of bis fleet?— 7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, what did he cause? 



GREECE. 



33 



to be scourged with three hundred stripes, and to be chained by 
casting into it a pair of tetters. The bridge being again repaired, 
the army commenced its march, and occupied seven days and 
seven nights in passing the straits, while those appointed to con- 
duct the march lashed the soldiers with whips, in order to quicken 
their speed. 

8. Xerxes having taken a position on an eminence, from which 
lie could view the vast assemblage he had collected, the plain 
covered with his troops, and the sea overspread with his vessels, 
at first called himself the most favored of mortals. But when 
lie reflected that in the short space of a hundred years, not one 
of the many thousands then before him would be alive, he burst 
into tears, at the instability of all human things. 

9. Most of the smaller cities of Greece submitted at the de- 
mand of the Persian monarch ; of those which united to oppose 
him, Athens and Sparta took the lead. The Persian army ad- 
vanced directly towards Athens, bearing down all before it until 
it came to the pass of Thermopylce, on the east of Thessaly. On 
this spot, Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, with only six 
thousand men, had taken his position in order to oppose its pro- 
gress. Xerxes having arrived at this place, sent a herald to 
Leonidas, commanding him to deliver up his arms, to whom the 
noble Spartan replied in laconic brevity, " Come and take them." 
For two days the Persians endeavoured to force their passage 
through the defile, but were repulsed with great slaughter ; but 
having at length discovered a secret path leading to an eminence 
which overlooked the Grecian camp, and having gained this ad- 
vantageous post, under the cover of the night, the defence of the 
pass became impossible. 

10. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, dismissed all his 
allies, retaining only thiee hundred of his countrymen, and in 
obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade her soldiers, under 
any circumstances, to flee from an enemy, resolved to devote his 
life for the good of his country. Animated by his example, the 
three hundred Spartans under his command determined to abide 
the issue of the conflict. Leonidas fell among the first, bravely 
contending against the thousands of his enemies ; of the three 
hundred heroes, only one escaped to bear to Sparta the news, 
that her patriotic sons had died in her defence; and this survivor, 
after his return, felt himself so disgraced at being alive, that he 
perished by his own hand. Aristodemus, another of the band, being 
absent when the battle occurred, was considered so much disgraced 
by this accident, that when he afterwards distinguished himself at the 
battle cf Platasa, he was nevertheless deemed unworthy of any 
share of the spoils. A monument was afterwards erected on the 
spot, to commemorate this memorable battle, bearing this inscription, 
written by Simonides : 

Go, stranger, and to listening Spartans tell, 

That here, obedient to their laws, we fell. 
What did he order? How long was the army in passing the straits ?— 8. What is 
now related of Xerxes ? — 9. What is said of the Persian army? On this spot, who 
opposed its progress ? What reply did he make ? How long were the Persians stopped? 
— 10. What did Leonidas now do ? Of the three hundred, how many escaped ? What 
Inscription was afterwards placed upon the monument ? 



34 GREECE. 

11. Xerxes having forced the pass of I'hermcpylsc, directed 
his march towards Athens, laying waste the country as he ad- 
vanced, with lire and sword. The Athenians, having conveyed 
their women and children, for safety, to the islands, retired to 
their fleet, leaving their city in the hands of the Persians, by 
whom it was pillaged and burnt. The only resource left to the 
Greeks was placed in their fleet ; therefore, they immediately 
commenced preparations for a naval engagement. Their fleet 
consisted of only three hundred and eighty sail, under the com- 
mand of Themistocles and Aristides, while that of the Persians 
amounted to twelve hundred vessels. The engagement took 
place in the straits of Salamis, which resulted in the total defeat 
of the Persian armament. Xerxes, who had seated himself upon 
an eminence, that, he might behold the engagement, having seen 
the complete discomfiture of his squadron, fled with precipitation 
to the shores of the Hellespont. But to his great mortification, 
he found that the bridge of boats which he left had been destroyed 
by a tempest ; terrified, however, at the valor displayed by the 
Greeks, his impatience would admit of no delay ; he therefore 
crossed the Hellespont in a fishing boat, to his own dominions. 

12. The Persian monarch I eft. Mardonius with three hum] red 
thousand men, to complete the conquest of Greece. This army, 
early in the following season, was met at Plataea, by the com- 
bined forces of Athens and Sparta, consisting of one hundn d 
and ten thousand men, under the command of Aristides and 
Pausanias, and was defeated with tremendous slaughter, Mardo- 
nius himself being numbered among the slain. On the sami' 
day, the Greeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the Per- 
sian fleet, at the promontory of Mycale, near Ephesus. The 
Persian army was now completely destroyed, and Xerxes, having 
been frustrated in all his ambitious views, was soon afterwards 
assassinated, and was succeeded in the Persian throne by his son, 
Ariaxerxes Longimanus, A. C. 464. 

13. At this period, the national character of the Greeks was at 
its highest elevation. The common danger had annihilated all 
partial jealousies between the stares, and had given them union 
as a nation. Encouraged by their late victories, they resolved to 
bid defiance to the Persians ; they undertook to aid the Ioniar.s 
who had thrown oft* the yoke of Persia. The combined forces 
of Sparta and Athens, under the command of Pausanias and Ci- 
rnon, expelled the Persians from Thrace, destroyed their fleet on 
the coast of Pamphylia, took the island of Cyprus, and having 
reduced and plundered the city of Byzantium, they returned 
with immense booty. 

14. Pausanias, who had borne so distinguished a part in the late 
war, now became intoxicated with glory and power, and aspired 

11 Where did Xerxes now march? What is said of the Athenians? Who com- 
manded their fleet ? What engagement took place ? What is said of Xerxes ? How 
did he cross the Hellespont ?— 12. What did the Persian monarch leave? By whom 
was this army met ? and what was the issue of tie battle ? On the same day, what 
took place? What was the end of Xerxes?— 1?. At this period, what is said of the 
G reeks? Wha1 did they undertake? What did they effect?— 14. What is said of 
Pausanias ? 



GREECE. 35 

to the sovereign dominion of Greece. For this purpose, he wrote 
to Xerxes, offering to effect the subjugation of his country, and to 
hold it under the dominion of Persia, on the condition of receiv- 
ing his daughter in marriage. The treachery was detected before 
it could be carried into execution, and Pausanias, being con- 
demned by the ephori, took refuge in the temple of Minerva, 
where the sanctity of the place secured him from violence ; being 
unable to escape from this asylum, he soon perished by hunger. 
Themistocles, the great Athenian commander, being accused of 
participating in the treason of Pausanias, was banished from his 
country, by the ostracism. The exiled general proceeded to 
Asia, wrote a letter to the Persian monarch, in which he said, " I, 
Themistocles, come to thee, who have done thy house most ill of 
all the Greeks, while I was of necessity repelling the invasion of 
thy father, but yet more good, when I was in safety, and his re- 
turn was endangered." He was permitted to live in Persia in 
great splendor, but being required by Artaxerxes to take vp 
arms against the Greeks, rather than sully his former glory, by 
engaging in a war against his native country, although that coun- 
try had been ungrateful towards him, he chose to suiTer a volun- 
tary death. 

15. Aristides, after the banishment of Themistocles, directed 
the affairs of Athens, and upon his death, which happened shortly 
afterwards, Cimon, the son of Miltiades, one of the most illus- 
trious statesmen and warriors of Greece, became the most pro- 
minent man in the republic. He gained two important victories 
over the Persians on the same day, the one by sea and the other 
by land, near the river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor. But it was 
the characteristic of the Athenians to treat their most distin- 
guished citizens with ingratitude. Cimon, through the influence 
of faction, was banished by the ostracism, while Pericles, ayoun^ 
man of exalted talents and extraordinary eloquence, succeeded 
in gaining the ascendency at Athens 

16. Cimon, however, after a banishment of five years, was re- 
called, and being restored to the command of the army, gained 
several other important victories over the Persians, and finally 
died of a wound he received at the siege of Cictium, in Cyprus. 
Shortly after this event, the Persian war, which had lasted with 
some slight intermissions for about fifty years, was brought to a 
termination. Artaxerxes, weary of a war that only brought dis- 
grace upon his arms and weakened his resources, sued for peace, 
which was granted on condition that he should ffive freedom to 
<ill the Grecian cities in Asia, and that no Persian ship of war 
should enter the Grecian seas. 

17. After the death of Cimon, Pericles rose to the summit of 
power ; he governed Athens with almost arbitrary sway for 
near forty years; he adorned the city with master-pieces of 
architecture, sculpture, and painting, patronised the arts and 

Where did he take refuge? What is related of Themistocles? What was his end ? 
— 15. What is said of Aristides and Cimon? After the banishment of Cimon, who 
gamed the ascendency at Athens ? — 16. Was Cimon again recalled ? What is said ol 
the Persian war ? VY hat were the conditions of peace"?— 17 What is said of Pericles T 



36 GREECE. 

sciences, celebrated splendid games and festivals, and his admin- 
istration forms an era of splendor and magnificence in the his- 
tory of Greece. In all his public acts, he displayed the greatest 
moderation and prudence, and the end of all his projects seems 
to have been the glory of his country, and the happiness of his 
fellow-citizens, lie died of a plague which raged at Athens : 
a little before his death, hearing some of his friends speaking of 
his achievements, he said, "You have forgotten the most glorious 
action of my life, which is, that I never caused a single citizen to 
put on mourning." 

SECTION VI. 

From the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, to the reign 
of Philip of Macedon. From B. G. 431 to 3G0. 

1. A few years previous to the death of Pericles, the Pelopon- 
nesian war was commenced, which grew out of the long-continued 
rivalship between Athens and Sparta, and for twenty-seven years, 
with little intermission, inflicted the deepest calamities upon the 
Grecian States. 

The origin, of this war seems to have been as follows: The inha- 
bitants of Corey ra, while engaged in a contest with the Corinthians, 
applied for aid to the Athenians, who readily granted them assist- 
ance ; this conduct on the part of the latter was deemed a viola- 
tion of the treaty of the confederate states of Peloponnesus, and 
war was immediately declared against Athens. • 

2. Sparta, joined by all the Peloponnesian states, except Argos, 
which remained neutral, took the lead against the Athenians, who 
had but few allies. The Peloponnesian forces, under the command 
of Archidamus, the king of Sparta, amounted to sixty thousand, 
while the Athenian army did not exceed thirty-two thousand, but 
the fleet of the latter was much the superior. During the firsj; 
year of the war, the confederate forces entered Attica, laid waste 
the country, and besieged Athens ; in the second year, the city was 
visited by a dreadful plague, which carried off several thousands, 
and among its victims was the renowned Pericles. The pestilence, 
however, did not arrest the progress of the war, which continued 
to rage with unabated fury. 

3. After the death of Pericles, Cleon grew into power/ and for 
a short time directed the Athenian counsels ; but he was slain at 
Amphepotis, in a battle with Brasidas, the Spartan general, who 
was also mortally wounded in the same engagement. After this 
event, a treaty of peace was concluded between Athens and 
Sparta, through the influence of Nlcias, who now became the 
popular leader at Athens. Peace, however, was of short dura- 

Jn all his public acts, what did he display 1 How did he die ? What did he say be- 
fore his death ? 

1. What was commenced previous to the death of Pericles ? What was the origin 
if this war ?— 2. What state t >ok the lead against Athens ! During the first year of 
the war what took place? During the second 1 — 3. After the death of Pericles, who 
grew into power t What was his end ? After this event what took place ? 



GREECE. 37 

Hon. war being again declared, through the influence of Alcibiades, 
one of the greatest of the Athenian generals, and the most accom- 
plished orators of his time. 

4. An expedition was next sent against the island of Sicily, 
under the command of Alcibiades and Nicias, but the former 
being accused of misconduct, was recalled, and the latter was 
totally defeated and slain. Alcibiades, after some time, was 
again placed at the head of the Athenian army, and gained several 
important victories, but falling a second time into disrepute, he 
was banished from this country, and took refuge in Asia, where he 
died. 

5. Lysandcr, the Lacedaemonian general, having defeated the 
Athenian fleet, at JEgos-Potamos, on the Hellespont, reduced 
Athens to the last extremity, by blockading the city both by sea 
and land. The wretched Athenians were at length compelled to 
accept the most humiliating terms of peace; they agreed to de- 
molish their port, to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and to under- 
take for the future no military enterprise, but under the command 
of the Lacedaemonians. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, by 
the submission of Athens, and the triumph of Sparta, which now 
became the leading power in Greece. A. (J. 403. 

6. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens abolished the popular 
government of that state, and established in its place an oligarchy, 
consisting of thirty magistrates, with absolute power, who, from 
their atrocious acts of cruelty, were called the Thirty Tyrants. 
In the space of eight months we are told that fifteen hun- 
dred citizens fell victims to their avarice and vengeance, 
while many others fled from their country. At length Thrasy- 
bulus, aided by a band of patriots, expelled the tyrants from the 
seat of their power, and restored the democratic form of govern- 
ment. 

7. An event, which happened about this time, reflected indeli- 
ble disgrace upon the fickle-minded Athenians, which was, the 
persecution and death of the illustrious philosopher, Socrates, a 
name, at once the glory and reproach of his country. The 
Sophists, whose futile logic he derided and exposed, represented 
him as an enemy to the religion of his country, because he attempt- 
ed to introduce the knowledge of a supreme Being, the Creator 
and Ruler of the universe, and to inculcate the belief of a future 
state of retribution; and being accused, moreover, of corrupting 
the youth, he was condemned by the assembly of Athens to die 
by poison. 

8. lie made his defence in person, with all the manly fortitude 
of conscious innocence, but the majority of his judges, being his 
personal enemies, determined on his ruin. During the forty days 
of his imprisonment, he conducted himself with the greatest dig- 
nity; refused to escape when an opportunity offered; conversed 

4. What expedition was next undertaken ? What is said of Alcibiades? — 5. What 
is said of Lytander ? Of the Athenians? What were the terms of peace ? How did 
the- war end? — 6. What did Lysander do ? In eight months, how many citizens per- 
ished? What did Thrasybulus do? — S. What events took place at this time'.' How 
did the Sophists represent him? Why? — S. How did he nuke his defence ? What is 
said of him uvriug his imprisonment ? 



iJ>i GREECE. 

with his friends on subjects of moral ph'losophy, particularly the 
immortality of the soul, and when the appointed time arrived 
drank the fatal cup of hemlock, and died with the utmost compo- 
sure. After the fatal deed was accomplished, the Athenians 
began to see the error into which they had fallen; his judges and 
accusers were either put to death or banished from the°city; a 
brazen statue was erected to his memory, the workmanship of 
the celebrated Lycippus. Thus they endeavored to repair, in 
some degree, the injustice they had permitted against the most 
virtuous of their citizens. 

9. On the death of Darius, the Persian throne was left to his 
son, Jirtaxerxcs II., but his younger brother, Cyrus, attempted 
to dethrone him, and for that purpose he employed about thirteen 
thousand Grecian troops; but both Cyrus and the Grecian com- 
mander were slain in a battle, which was fought at Cunaxa, near 
Babylon. The remainder of the Grecian army, which amounted 
to about ten thousand, under the command of Xenophon, effected 
a most extraordinary retreat, traversing a hostile country of six- 
teen hundred miles in extent, from Babylon to the shores of the. 
Kuxine. This celebrated return, usually called the retreat of Ten 
Thousand, is beautifully described by Xenophon himself, .and is 
regarded as one of the most extraordinary exploits in military 
history. 

10. The Grecian colonies in Asia having taken part with Cyrus, 
were assisted by the Spartans, under their king Jlgcsilaus. The 
Persian monarch, however, by means of bribes, induced Athens 
and other of the Grecian states, jealous of the power of the Lace- 
daemonians, to enter into a league against them, tfgesilaus was 
obliged to return in order to protect his own dominions; he 
defeated the confederate forces in the battle of Coronea, but the 
Spartan fleet was defeated by the Athenians under Conon nea; 
Cnidos. A treaty of peace was finally concluded, by which it 
was agreed that all the Grecian cities of Asia should belong to 
Persia, and all others should be independent, with the exception 
of the islands of Lemnos, Scyros and Imbros, which should 
remain under the dominion of Athens. 

11. While Athens and Sparta were visibly tending to decline, 
Thebes emerged from obscurity, and rose lor a time to a degree 
of splendor eclipsing all the other states of Greece. The Spar- 
tans, jealous of its growing prosperity, took advantage of some 
internal dissension and seized upon Ihe citadel. Pelopidas, 
with a number of Thebans, fled for protection to Athens, where 
he planned the deliverance of his country. Disguising himself 
and twelve of his friends as peasants, he entered Thebes in the 
evening, and joining a patriotic party of citizens, they surprised 
the leaders of the usurpation amidst the tumult of a feast, and 
put them all to death; and pursuing his success in conjunction 

How did lie die? What is said of the Athenians?— 9. "What did Cyrus attempt 1 
What did the remainder of the army effect after this event? — 10. By whom were the 
Grecian colonies assisted? What did the Persians effect by bribes? What is said 
of Agesilaus? What battles were fought? What was agreed by the treaty of peace! 
- 11. What state emerged from obscurity ? What did the Spartans do ? What is said 
Of Pelopidas f 



GREECE. 39 

with his friend Epaminondas , who shared with him the glory of 
the enterprise, he finally succeeded in expelling the Lacedaemo- 
nian garrison from the Theban territory. 

12. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta; 
the Theban army, under the command of Pelopidas and Epami- 
nondas, gained the memorable battle of Leuctra, in which they 
lost only three hundred men, while the Spartan loss amounted to 
four thousand, together with their king Cleombrotus, who was 
numbered among the slain. The victorious Thebans, under 
Kpaminondas, joined by many of the other Grecian states, entered 
the territories of Lacedaemon, and overran the country with fire 
and sword. The Spartans, who had long boasted that their wo- 
men had never beheld the smoke of an enemy's camp, were 
mortified to see the invaders now encamped within the very sight 
of their capital. 

13. Having humbled the power of Sparta, the Theban com- 
mander returned with his victorious army to his native city; but 
the war being again renewed, he gained another great victory 
over the Lacedaemonians and Athenians at the battle of Man- 
tinea; but he fell mortally wounded in the moment of victory. 
With the fall of Epaminondas, who was equally eminent as a 
philosopher, statesman, and general, fell the glory of his country. 

The battle of Mantinea was followed by a peace between all 
the Grecian states, by which each city established its inde- 
pendence. 



SECTION VII. 

Philip of Macedon. The Exploits and Death of Alexander. 
From 360 to 324. 

1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The spirit 
of patriotism appeared utterly lost, and military glory at an end, 
Athens, at this timr* the most prominent state, was sunk in luxury 
and pleasure; yet she was distinguished for her cultivation of 
literature and the arts. Sparta, no less changed from the sim« 
plicity of her ancient manners, and her power weakened by the 
new independence of the state of Peloponnesus, was in no capa- 
city to attempt a recovery of her former greatness. Such was 
(he situation of Greece, when Philip of Macedon formed the 
ambitious design of bringing the whole country under his do- 
minion. 

2. The kingdom of Macedon had existed upwards of four hun 
lined years, but it had not risen to any considerable eminence; it 
formed no part of the Greek confederacy, and had no voice in 
the Amphictyonic council. The inhabitants boasted ot the same 
origin with the Greeks, but were considered by the latter as 

12. Wnat ensued ? What battle did the Theban army gain ? What was the loss on 
both sides? What is said of the Spartans?— 13. What is said of the Theban com- 
rr.ar.dor? What followed the battle cf Mantinea? 

1. What is said now of Greece? Of Athens? Of Sparta?— 2. Hnw long hod the 
Kingdom of Macedon existed 7 What is said of the inhabitants ? 



40 GREECE. 

barbarians. Philip, who laid the foundation of the Macedonian 
empire, or as it is sometimes called, the Grecian empire, because 
Greece in its most extensive sense included Macedonia, was sent 
as a hostage to Thebes, at the age of ten years, where he enjoyed 
the advantage of an excellent education under Epaminondas. At 
the age of twenty-four years, he ascended the throne of Macedon, 
by the popular voice, in violation of the natural right of the nearer 
heirs to the crown. 

3. Philip was possessed of great military and political talents, 
and was equally distinguished for his consummate artifice and 
address. In order to accomplish the subjugation of the Grecian 
states, he cherished dissensions among them, and employed agents 
in each with a view of having every public measure directed to his 
advantage. The attempt of the Phocians to occupy and cultivate 
a tract of land consecrated to the Delphian Apollo, gave rise to a 
contest called the Sacred War, in which most of the states of 
Greece were involved. The Thebans, Thessalians and other states, 
undertook to punish the Phocians, who were supported chiefly by 
Athens and Sparta. 

4. Philip proposed to act as arbitrator of the matter in dispute, 
and procured himself to be elected a member of the Amphictyo- 
nic council. Shortly after this event, the Locrians having en- 
croached upon the consecrated ground of Delphi, and having 
refused to obey the order of the Amphictyonic council, Philip was 
invited to vindicate their authority by force of arms. Philip began 
his hostilities by invading Phocis, the key to the territory of Attica. 
JEschines, the orator, bribed to his interest, endeavored to quiet 
the alarms of the Athenians, by ascribing to him a design only of 
punishing the sacrilege and vindicating the cause of Apollo. De* 
mosthenesy with the true spirit of a patriot, exposed the artful de 
signs of the invader, and with most animated eloquence roused his 
countrymen to a vigorous effort for the preservation of their liber- 
ties. The event, however, was unsuccessful; the battle of Chero- 
nasa decided the fate of Greece, and subjected all the states to the 
dominion of the king of Macedon, A. 0. 337. 

5. It was not the policy of the conqueror to treat the several 
states as a vanquished people; they were allowed to retain their 
separate independent governments, while he reserved for himself 
the direction and control of all national measures. Convoking a 
general council of the states, he laid before them his project for 
the invasion of Persia, and was appointed commander-in-chief of 
the forces of all the Grecian states. On the eve of this great en- 
terprise, Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, the captain of his 
guards, while solemnizing the nuptials of his daughter, in the 
forty-seventh year of his age. The news of the event caused the 
most tumultuous joy among the Athenians, who indulged the vain 

Of Philip? At what age did he ascend the throne of Mscedon ?— 3. What did he 
possess? What did he cherish? What gave rise to the Sacred War ?— 4. What did 
Philip propose? After this event what tocfc place? How did he commence hostili- 
ties? What is said of JEschines and Demosthenes? What is said of the battle of 
Cheronsea ? — 5. What was the policy of the conqueror ? Having convoked a council 
of the states, what did he lay before them ? On the eve of this enterprise, what hap- 
pened to Philip ? What did the news of this event cause among the Athenians 1 



GREECE. 41 

hope of again recovering their liberty; but the visionary prospect 
was never realized ; the spirit of the nation was gone, and in all 
their subsequent revolutions, they only changed their masters. 

6. On the death of Philip, his son Alexander, surnamed the 
Great, succeeded to the throne of Macedon at the age of twenty 
years. The young king, having reduced to subjection some of 
the states to the north of Macedon, turned the whole power of his 
arms against the revolted states of Greece. He defeated the 
Tiiebans with immense slaughter, caused their city to be razed 
to the ground, and thirty thousand of its inhabitants to be sold as 
slaves. These acts of severity so intimidated the other states of 
Greece, that they immediately submitted to his dominion. Alex- 
ander then ascembled the deputies of the Grecian states at Corinth, 
and renewed the proposal of invading Persia, and was appointed, 
as his father had been, the commander-in-chief of their united 
forces. 

7. With an army of thirty thousand foot and five thousand horse, 
with the sum of only seventy talents and provisions for a single 
month, he crossed the Hellespont, and traversing Phrygia, pro- 
ceeded to the site of Troy and visited the tomb of Achilles, whom 
he pronounced the most fortunate of men in having Patrocles for 
his friend and Homer for his panegyrist. Darius Codomanus, 
resolving at once to crush the youthful hero, met him on the banks 
of the Granicus, with an army of one hundred thousand foot and 
twenty thousand horse. Here an obstinate battle was fought, in 
which the Persian monarch was defeated with a loss, according 
to Plutarch, of twenty-two thousand men, while the Macedonian 
loss was only thirty-four. In this battle, Alexander escaped nar- 
rowly with his life — being attacked by an officer, who was about 
to cleave his head with a battle-axe, when the blow was prevented 
by Clytus, who cut off the hand of the officer with his cimiter and 
thus saved the life of his sovereign. 

8. The success of this battle was important to Alexander, as it 
put him in possession of Sardis with all its riches; he generously 
gave the citizens their liberty, and permitted them to live under 
their own laws. He soon after took Miietus, Halicarnassus, and 
other important places. The next important victory was obtained 
in the great battle of Issus. The Persian army, consisting of six 
hundred thousand men, was defeated with prodigious slaughter, 
no less than one hundred and ten thousand being killed, while 
(he Macedonians numbered only four hundred and fifty among 
the slain. The mother, wife and two daughters of Barius fell 
into the hands of the conqueror, who treatecf them with the great- 
est delicacy and respect. Barius, on hearing of the kindness of 
Alexander towards his family, offered for their ransom the sum 

6. WT.o succeeded Philip? How did lie treat the Thebans? Having assembled the 

deputies of the Grecian states, what proposals did he renew? — 7. What was the nnm- 
her of his army? Where did he proceed ? By whom and where was he met? What 
was the issue 'of the battle, and the loss on both sides? In this battle, what is said 
of Alexander? — ?. What places did he next take? Where was the next victory ob- 
tained? What was the number of the Persian army? The number of the sla ; n on 
both sides? "Who fell inio the hands of the conqueror? I low were they treated? 
What did Darius offer for their ransom ? 

4* 



42 GREECE 

often thousand talents, (about £2,000,000 sterling,) and proposed 
a treaty of peace and alliance, with the further offer of his daugh- 
ter in marriage and all the country between the Euphrates and 
the iEgean sea. 

9. When the offer was laid before Alexander's council, Par- 
menio is reported to have said, " If I were Alexander, I would 
accept the terms;" "And so would I," replied Alexander, " were 
I Parmenio." After this he overran Syria, took Damascus, and 
laid siege to Tyre, which surrendered after a noble defence or 
seven months. On this occasion, the conqueror exercised an act 
of barbarous cruelty by causing two thousand citizens of Tyre 
to be crucified, besides all those who were put to the sword or 
sold into slavery. He then directed his march towards Jerusa- 
lem, which he entered without opposition. Having taken the city 
of Gaza, he inhumanly sold ten thousand of its inhabitants into 
slavery, and dragged Betis, its illustrious defender, at the wheeL 
of his chariot, in imitation of Achilles, after the taking of Troy. 

10. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which readdy submit 
ted to his arms; and with incredible fatigues, he led his army 
through the deserts of Libya to visit the temple of Jvpiter-Am- 
mon, and caused himself to be proclaimed the son of that deity. 
On his return, he commenced the building of the city of Alexan- 
dria, afterwards the capital of Lower Egypt, and for a time, on 1 ; 
of the greatest commercial cities in the world: he is said to have 
founded twenty other cities during the course of his conquests 
Returning from Egypt, he again received proposals from Darius, 
who offered to surrender to him the whole of his dominions to the 
west of the Euphrates; but he haughtily rejected the offer, saying, 
that " the world could no more admit of two masters than of two 
suns." 

11. Having crossed the Euphrates, he was met at the village 
of Arabela by Darius, at the head of seven hundred thousand 
men. A tremendous battle ensued, in which the Persians were 
defeated with a loss of three hundred thousand men, while that 
of Alexander was only about five hundred. This great battle 
decided the fate of Persia. Darius first escaped to Media and 
afterwards into Bactria, where he Mas betrayed by Bessus, the 
satrap of that province, and murdered ; and shortly after this 
event the whole Persian empire submitted to the conqueror. 

12. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, and having 
penetrated beyond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porut, the illus 
trious king of that country. He still continued his march to the 
East ; but when he arrived at the banks of the Ganges, his soldiers 
seeing no end to their toils, refused to proceed any further, and 
demanded that they might be permitted to return to their coun- 
try. Finding it impossible to overcome their reluctance, he re 

9. "When the offer was laid before the council, what «vas said by Parmenio, and 
what was Alexander's reply? Alter the siege of Tyre, what act of cruelty did he 
exercise? Having taken the city of Gaza, what did he do? — 10. Wheie did he next 
proceed? On his'return, what city did he commence? What reply did he make to 
the proposals of Darius ? — 11. Where was he met by Darius? What ensued ? What 
was the loss on both sides? What was the fate of Darius?— 12. What did Alexan 
Oer next project ? When he arrived on the bar.*.s of the Ganges, what happened ? 



GREECE. 43 

turned to the Indus, and pursuing his course southward by that 
river, he arrived at the ocean, and sending his fleet to the Persian 
Gulf, he led his army across the desert to Persepolis, which in a 
fit of frenzy he ordered to be set on fire. From Persepolis he 
returned to Babylon, which he chose as the seat of his Asiatic 
empire; here giving himself up to every excess, he was seized 
with a violent fever, brought on by excessive intemperance, and 
thus died in the thirty-third year of his age, and thirteenth of his 
reign, A. C. 324. 

13. Perceiving that his end was approaching, he raised himself 
upon his elbow and presented his dying hand to his soldiers to 
kiss. Being asked to whom he left his empire, he answered, 
" To the most worthy." Alexander was the most renowned hero 
of antiquity. He possessed talents which might have rendered 
him distinguished as a statesman and a benefactor of mankind, 
but it was to his military exploits alone that he is entitled to the 
surname of Great. In the early part of his career, he was distin- 
guished for self-government, and exhibited many noble and gen- 
erous traits of character. But when 'ntoxicated with his extra- 
ordinary success, he gave himself up to unbounded indulgence 
and to deeds of cruelty and ingratitude. He caused Parmenio, 
his most distinguished general, who had assisted him in gaining 
all his victories, to be assassinated on mere suspicion. His friend 
Clytus, who had saved his life in the battle of the Granic.us, he 
struck dead upon the spot, because he contradicted him when 
heated with wine. He caused the philosopher Callisthencs to be 
put to death for refusing to pay him divine honours. (See par- 
ticulars of his character in the Biography.) 



SECTION VIII. 

From the Death of Alexander to the subjugation of Greece by the 
Romans, From A, C. 324 to 146. 

1. Alexander having named no successor, his vast empire was 
divided into thirty-three governments, and distributed among as 
many of the principal officers. Hence arose a series of intrigues, 
fierce and sanguinary wars, which resulted in the total extinction 
of every member of Alexander's family, and finally terminated 
in a new division of the empire into four kingdoms: namely, that 
of Egypt under Ftole?ny; Macedonia, including Greece, under 
Cassander; Thrace, together with Bithynia, under Lysimachus ; 
ar.d Syria, under Seleucus. 

2. ]<rom the period of Alexander's death, the history of the 
Grecian states, to the time of their subjugation by the Romans, 

Where did he die ? What was his age, and the length of lis reign ? — 13. Perceiving 
that his end was approaching, what did he do ? What is sa d of Alexander ? In the 
early part of his career ? When intoxicated with success! Whom did he cause to 
be assassinated ? Who did he strike dead ? 

1. How was the empire divided? What arose? Name the four chief empire*! — 
2 From Alexander's death, what is said of the history of the Grecian states? 



44 GREECE. 

prese ts only a series of uninteresting revolutions. When the 
news of this event reached Athens, Demosthenes once more made 
a noble effort to vindicate the national freedom, and to arouse his 
countrymen to shake oft' the yoke of Macedon. His counsels so 
far prevailed, that the Greeks formed a confederacy, for the pur- 
pose of recovering their liberty; but they were finally defeated 
by Antipater, and Athens was obliged to purchase a peace by 
the sacrifice of ten of her public speakers, among whom the 
renowned orator Demosthenes was included. But to avoid fall- 
ing into the hands of his enemies, he put an end to his own life 
by taking poison. 

3. Under the administration of Polyspcrchon, who succeeded 
Antipater in the government, of Macedon, independence for a short 
time was restored to the Grecian states. Scenes of turbulence 
were -soon renewed among the Athenians; they put to death 
many of the friends of Antipater, and among the rest was the 
venerable Phocion, now upwards of eighty years of age. He was 
eminent in his public character and private virtues, and had been 
forty-five times governor of Athens. To a friend who lamented 
his fate, he said, " This is only what I long expected : it is thus 
that Athens has rewarded her most illustrious citizens." 

Cassander, who succeeded Polysperchon, appointed Demetrius 
Phalereus governor of Athens. Under his wise administration, 
which continued twelve years, the city enjoyed a considerable 
degree of prosperity, and the Athenians, to testify their gratitude, 
erected no less than three hundred and sixty statues to his 
memory 

4. The. last effort made to revive the expiring liberty of Greece. 
was the formation of the Jlchxan League, which was a union or 
twelve of the smaller states for that object. The government of 
this confederacy was committed to Aratus, a young man of emi 
ncnt abilities, who took the title of prsetor. He formed the noble 
design of liberating his country from the dominion of Macedon, 
and establishing the independence of all Greece ; but the jealousy 
of some of the principal states, particularly of Sparta, rendered 
the plan abortive. 

Aratus was succeeded by Philopoemen, who triumphed over 
the Spartans and iEtolians, but in an expedition against the Mcs- 
senians, who had revolted, he was defeated and slain. Philo- 
poemen was styled the " last of the Greeks," because after hin. 
Greece produced no leader worthy of her former glory. 

5. The Macedonians having declared war against the JEtolians, 
the latter applied for aid to the Romans, who now became the 
most powerful nation in the world. The offer was joyfully 
accepted by the Romans, who had long wished for an opportunity 
of adding to their dominion this devoted country; their army, 

When the news reached Allien?, what did Demostheres do? What was his end ? 
—3. Under the administration of rolysperchon, what was said? What is said of 
Phocion? What reply did he make to a friend ? Who was appointed governor of 
Athens? What is said of his administration ? — 4. What was the last effort to revive 
ine liberty of Greece? To whom was the government committed 7 What did he 
form ? Who succeeded Aratus ? What was he styled? — 5. What is said of the Mace, 
donians ? What was done by their army 1 



GREECE. 45 

under tne command of Quintus Flaminius, defeated Philip* king 
of Macedon, and proclaimed liberty to all the Grecian states. 
About thirty years after this event, the Romans, under the com- 
mand of Paulas JEmilius, again invaded Greece, in a war with 
Perseus, the son of Philip, who was entirely defeated in the battle 
of Pydna, and tailing into the hands of the conqueror with all his 
family, he was led captive to Rome, to grace the triumph ot the 
general, and Macedonia was reduced to a RomAn province. 
A.C. 1G7. 

0. The Romans, already jealous ot the power of. the Acluean 
League, endeavoured to weaken it by cherishing divisions among 
the states, and sought the earliest opportunity of again unsheath- 
ing the sword against Greece. At length the Spartans, in a 
contest with the Achaean states, applied for assistance to Rome. 
The Romans, under the command of Metellus, marched into 
Greece and gained a complete victory over the Achaean army. 
The consul Mummius completed the conquest by taking and 
destroying the city of Corinth, in which the remainder of the 
Achaean forces had taken refuge. The Achaean constitution was 
dissolved, and all Greece was reduced to a Roman province, 
under the name of Achaia. A. C. 146, 

7. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary people, we 
find much to admire and much to condemn. In point of genius, 
taste, learning, patriotism, and valor, the Greeks far surpassed 
all the other nations of antiquity. With regard to their forms ot 
government, they were far from corresponding in practice with 
what they expressed in theory. Even in the palmiest days ot 
Greece, we look in vain for that beautiful idea presented by a 
well-regulated commonwealth. The condition of the people fre- 
quently partook more of servitude than of liberty. Slaves formed 
tiie great majority of the inhabitants of the Grecian states ; and 
bondage being a consequence of the contraction of debt, even by 
free men, a great proportion of these were subject to the tyranni- 
cal control of their fellow-citizens. They were perpetually 
divided into factions, and torn by internal dissensions, which 
finally led to the subversion of their liberties 

8. In pursuing the history of Athens, the mind is forcibly 
struck with the injustice and ingratitude frequently manifested 
towards the most illustrious of her citizens. Miltiad.es, Aristides, 
Themistocles, Phocion, Chnon and Socrates, were all sentenced 
to death or banishment, yet the Athenians, with their charac 
teristic fickleness and inconstancy, did ample justice to their 
merits, and sought to punish those by whom they were accused. 
The most remarkable circumstance which strikes us, in com- 
paring the latter with the more early period of Grecian history, 
13 the total change in the genius and spirit of the people. The 

When did the Romans invade Greece? What is said of Philip? What was hta 
fate?— G. What is said of the Romans? Who completed the conquest of Greece? 
To what was it reduced? — 7. In reviewing the history, what do we find? What in 
said of the forms of government? Of the people! Ci slaves? — S. In pursuing the 
history of Athens, how is the mind struck ? Who were sentenced to death or baaish- 
*ment? W'lat remarkable circumstance strikes us? What declined 7 



46 GREECE. 

ardor of patriotism, the thirst for military glory and love of 
liberty, decline with the rising grandeur of the nation ; while a 
taste for the tine arts, a love of science and the refinements ol 
luxury are introduced. 



SFXTION IX. 

Grecian Antiquities, 

Philosophy. Philosophy among the Greeks was divided into 
various sects or schools. Of these, the Ionic sect was the most 
ancient, founded by Thales, A. C. 640. He was eminently dis- 
tinguished for his knowledge of geometry and astronomy, ami 
taught the belief of a first cause, and overruling Providence, but 
supposed the Deity to animate the universe, as the soul does the 
body. 

The Italian or Pythagorean sect was founded by Pythagoras, 
who taught the transmigration of souls through different bodies, 
and believed the earth to be a sphere, the planets to be inhabited, 
and fixed stars to be the suns and centres of other systems. 

The Socratic school was founded by Socrates, who was esteemed 
the wisest and most virtuous of the Greeks, and the father of 
moral philosophy He taught the belief of a first cause, whose 
beneficence is equal to his power, the Creator and Ruler of the 
universe. He inculcated the immortality of the soul, and a future 
state of regards and punishments. 

The Cynics, a sect founded by Antislhenes, and supported by 
Diogenes, condemned knowledge as useless, renounced social 
enjoyments 'and conveniences of life, and indulged themselves in 
scurrility and invective. 

The Academic sect was founded by Plato, a philosopher whose 
doctrines have had a more extensive influence over the minds of 
mankind than those of any other of the ancients. Plato had the 
most sublime ideas of the Deity and his attributes. He taught 
that the human soul was a portion of the divinity, and that this 
alliance with the eternal mind might be improved into actual 
intercourse with the Supreme Being, by abstracting the soul from 
all the corruptions it derives from the body. He gave his lectures 
in the grove of Academus, near Athens. 

The Peripatetic sect was founded by Aristotle, who established 
his school in the Lyceum, at Athens. His philosophy was taught 
in the schools for sixteen hundred years. 

The Skeptical sect was founded by Pyrrho, who inculcated 
universal doubt as the only true wisdom. There was, in his 
opinion, no essential difference between vice and virtue, furthci 
than as human compact had discriminated them. Tranquillity ol 

Philosophy.— What is said of philosophy among the Greek* ? Who was the founder 
of the Ionic sect? What is said of him? Who was the founder of the Pvthagorear 
sect? What did he teach ? Who was the founder of the Socraiic sect? What did he 
teach and inculcate ? Who founded the Cynic sect? What did he condemn? Who 
founded the Academic sect 1 What did he teach ? Where did he give his lectures? 
Whofoumied the Peripatetic sect? Who founded the Skeptic sect? What did ha 
itirulr.-^ / 



GREECE. 47 

mind he considered to be the greatest happiness, and this was to 
be obtained by absolute indifference to all dogmas or opinions. 

The Stoic sect was founded by Zeno. The Stoics inculcated 
fortitude of mind, denied that paiu is an evil, and endeavoured 
to raise themselves above all the passious and feelings of human- 
ity. They taught that virtue consists in accommodating the dis- 
positions of the mind to the immutable laws of nature, and vice 
in opposing these laws; they regarded vice, therefore, as folly, 
and virtue the only true wisdom. 

The Epicureans, named from Epicurus, the founder of the sect, 
maintained that the supreme happiness of man consisted in 
pleasure. 

The principal of all things was a subject of special research 
by the philosophers of Greece. T hales taught that this principle 
consisted of water ; Anaxagoras, of infinite air ; Ileraclitus, of 
fire; Democritus,of atoms ; Pythagoras, of unity; Plato, of God, 
idea, and matter ; Aristotle, of matter, form and, privation ; Zeno, 
of God and matter; Epicurus, of matter and empty space. 

The Seven Wise Men. The seven wise men of Greece were, 
Thales, of xMiletus; Solon, of Athens; Bias, of Priene ; Chilo,of 
Luceda)mon ; Pittacus, of Mitylene ; Cleobulus, of Lindos, and 
Pei'o.uidcr, of Corinth. Instead of Periander, some enumerate 
Myron, and others Anacharsis. 

The (Jouxcir, of the Amphictyoxs. This council is supposed 
to have been instituted by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion, 
king of Thessaly, at an early period of the history of Greece. It 
consisted, at first, of twelve deputies, from the twelve different 
cities or states ; but the number was afterwards increased to 
thirty. They- met twice a year; in the spring at Delphi, and in 
the autumn at Thermopylae. The objects of this assembly were 
to unite in strict unity the states which were represented ; to 
consult for their mutual welfare and defence; to decide all differ- 
ences between cities, and to try offences against the laws of na- 
tions. 

Public Games. There were four public and solemn games in 
Greece, namely, the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. 
The exercises practised at these games were, leaping, running, 
throwing, boxing, and wrestling; also the horse and chariot 
races, and contests between the poets, orators, musicians, philo- 
sophers, and artists. 

The Olympic games were instituted by Hercules, in honor of 
Jupiter Olympus, A. C. 1222 years; they were celebrated in the 
town of Olympia, in the first month of every fifth year, and 
lasted five days. The space between one celebration to another 
was called an Olympiad, by which the Greeks computed their 
time. The prize bestowed on the victor was s crown of olive ; 

Who was the founder of the Stoic sect ? What did they inculcate ? What did they 
teach? What is said of the Epicureans? What was a subject of special research! 
What were the various opinions of the philosophers on this subject? 

The Seven Wise Mex. — Who were the seven wise men of Greece ? 

The Council of the Amphictyoxs.— By whom was it instituted? Of what did it 
consist? Where did they meet? What tvas the object of this assembly ? 

Public Games.— What were the four public games? What were the exercises f 
Ov whom were the Olympic game6 instituted ? What was the prize of Uie victor ? 



48 



GREECE. 



Fet trifling- as was this reward, it was considered as the highest 
honor, and was sought for with the utmost eagerness. The. vic- 
tor was greeted with loud acclamations, and his return home was 
in the style of a warlike conqueror. 

The Pythian games were celebrated every fifth year, in ihe 
second of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo 
The reward of the victors was a crown of laurel. 

The Nemean games were celebrated in the town of Nemea, 
every third year. The victors were crowned with parsley. 

The Isthmian games, so called from being celebrated on the 
isthmus of Corinth, were instituted in honor of Neptune, gnd 
observed every third or fifth year; they were held so sacred that 
even a public calamity could not prevent their celebration. The 
victors were rewarded with a garland of pine leaves. 

Literature. No nation of ancient or modern times surpassed 
the Greeks in literary taste and genius. In subsequent ages, great 
advances have been made in science, and in some of the branches 
of polite learning; yet in chaste and beautiful composition, in 
brilliancy of fancy, in sweetness of periods, in various forms of 
intellectual efforts, under the name of poetry, oratory, and his- 
tory, they are still unrivalled. 

Poetry in Greece was extremely ancient ; it was even cultivated 
before the introduction of letters. In epic poetry, Homer stands 
unrivalled in ancient or modern times. In lyric poetry, the names 
of JJnaereon, Sappho, and Pindar, have attained imperishable 
fame. 

Oratory was cultivated among the Greeks, particularly the 
Athenians, with the utmost care. The study of eloquence formed 
the principal employment of the young citizens at Athens. It 
was that which opened the way to the highest offices, reigned ab- 
solute in the assemblies, decided the most important affairs of the 
state, and an almost unlimited power to those who had the talent 
of oratory in an eminent degree. Music was cultivated with 
great success, and was considered an essential part in the educa- 
tion of the youth. The ancients ascribed to it wonderful effects; 
they believed it well calculated to calm the passions, soften the 
manners, and even to harmonize nations naturally barbarous and 
savage. Dancing was also cultivated with much attention and 
care. 

Arts. In the more useful and necessary arts of life, the Greeks 
were never greatly distinguished. But in those which arc termed 
the fine arts, Greece far surpassed all other nations of antiquity; 
and those specimens which have survived the wreck of time are 
regarded as models of imitation, and are acknowledged as stan- 

What is said of it ? How often were they celebrated ? How often were llic Pythian 
games celebrated ? In honor of whom ?" "What was the reward of the victors ? At 
what place were the Nemean celebrated? With what were the victors crowned? 
Why were the Isthmian games so called? What is said of them? What was the 
reward of the victors? 

Literature. — What is said of the Greeks in literary taste ? In what are they still 
unrivalled? What is said of poetry ? Of Homer ? Of Anacreon, &c. ? What is said 
of Oratory'' The study of Eloquence ? Of Music ? What did they ascribe to .tt 
What is said of Dancing-? 

Arts. — In what were the Greeks never greatly distinguished ? In what die thov 
surpass all others ? 



GREECE. 49 

dards of excellence, in the judgment of the most polished nations 
•of modern times. During the administration of Pericles, which 
is called the golden age of the Grecian arts, architecture, sculp- 
ture, and painting were carried to the summit of perfection. The 
architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the 
Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric has a masculine grandeur, 
and a superior air of strength to both the other orders. It is, 
therefore, well adapted to works of great magnitude. Of this order 
is the temple of Theseus, at Athens, built ten years after ihe battle 
of Marathon, and is almost entire at the present day. 

The Ionic is distinguished for its elegance and simplicily, the 
latter quality being essentially requisite in true beauty. Of this 
order were the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, the temple of the Del- 
phic oracle, and the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. The Corinthian 
affected the highest magnificence and ornament, by uniting the 
characters of all the orders. 

In sculpture, the Greeks excelled no less than in architecture. 
Specimens of their skill in this respect are perfect models. The 
Dying Gladiator, the Venus, and the Laocoon of the Grecian 
sculptors have an imperishable fame. 

In painting, though very few specimens have descended to us, 
they are supposed to have excelled. The productions of Zeuxis, 
Appelles, Timanthes, and others which perished, were highly ex- 
tolled by the writers of antiquity. 

Private and Domestic Life. The dress of the Greeks differed 
much from that of most of the modern nations. The men wore an 
inner garment called a tunic, over which they threw a mantle ; 
their shoes or sandals were fastened under the soles of their 
feet with thongs. The women, particularly at Athens, wore a 
white tunic, which was closely bound with a broad sash, and 
descended in graceful folds to the ground ; also a shorter robe, 
confined round the waist with a ribbon, and bordered at the bottom 
with stripes of various colours. Over this they sometimes put on a 
robe which was worn much like the present scarf. In the earlier 
ages of Greece, the inhabitants usually wore no covering on 
their heads, but in after times, they made use of a kind of hat, tied 
under the chin. The women, however, always had their heads 
covered. The Athenians wore in their hair a golden grass-hopper, 
as an emblem of the antiquity of their nation, intimating that they 
sprung from the earth. In Sparta, the kings, magistrates, and 
citizens were but little distinguished by dress. The military cos- 
tume was of a red color. 

The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number. The 
breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the next meal 
at midday; then came the afternoon repast, and lastly, the sup- 
per, which was the principal meal. Every thing capable of sus- 
taining life was used as food, though they were generally fond of 

What were the three orders of architecture ? What is said of the Doric? How 
was the Ionic distinguished ? What did the Corinthian efi'ect 1 What is said of sculp- 
ture l What have an imperishable fame ? What is said of painting? 

Private and Domestic Life — A\ hat was the di-ess of the men ? Of the women ? 
What did the Athenians wear ? What was (he number of their meals, and when 
were they taken ? What was used ? 



50 GREECE. 

fish ; water and wine were the usual drink. At first they sat up- 
right at their meals; but as luxury prevailed, couches were intro- 
duced, on which the guests reclined while at table. Marriage 
among the Greeks was only lawful as the consent of the parents 
or other relatives could be obtained. Polygamy was allowed 
only after great calamities, such as war or pestilence. 

The Grecian women seldom appeared in strange company, buf 
were confined to the remote parts of the house, into which no 
male visitor was admitted. "When they went abroad, they wore 
veils to conceal their faces. It was disreputable, however, for 
them to appear much abroad. Children were required to main- 
tain their parents in old age; but, according to the laws of Solon 
parents who did not bring up their children to some useful em- 
ployment, could not exact a support from them. 

The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many cere 
monies, showing that they considered the duties belonging to 
the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, it was 
the most awful of all imprecations, to wish that a person might 
be deprived of funeral honours. [For Oracles and Religion oj 
the Greeks, see Mythology.] 

Of some of the peculiar institutions of Greece, the court of 
Jlreopagus and Ostracism were most remarkable. The Jlreopa- 
gus, which signifies the HiK of Mars, from the place where it 
was held, was the most distinguished and venerable court of jus- 
tice in ancient times, and took cognisance of crimes, abuses and 
innovations, either in religion or government. The Areopagites 
were the guardians of education and manners, and inspected the 
laws. To laugh in this assembly was an unpardonable act oi 
levity. 

One of the absurd peculiarities in the government of Athens, 
was the practice of the Ostracism; this was a ballot of all the 
citizens, in which each wrote down the name of the individual 
most offensive to him ; and he who was marked out by the great- 
est number of votes, was banished from his country for a specified 
time, often for a number of years. It was not necessary that any 
crime should be alleged : neither the property nor the nonor of 
the exile sustained the least injury. By this institution the most 
flagrant injustice was often committed against the most virtuous 
citizens. 

Origin of Tragedy. Tragedy owes its origin to the feasts of 
Hacchits, usually celebrated at the time of the vintage, and at. 
first consisted of a few rude comic scenes, intermixed with songs 
in praise of that god. Thespis, owing to several improvements 
winch he made in tragedy, is generally esteemed its inventor, 
although there were seveial tragic and comic poets before his 

TIow did they sit at their meals ? What is said of marriage ? What was allowed * 
What is said of the Grecian women? What was disreputable ? What were chil- 
dren required to do? What is said of funerals 7 Wli at was thought the most awful 
imprecation? Whit were some of the peculiar institutions? Whit is said of the 
Areopagus ? Of what were they the guardians ? What was deemed an unpardonable 
act of levity? What was the Ostracism ? By this institution, what was often 
committed ? 

ObiginofTkagedy.— To what does tragedy owe us origin? What is said ofTke^pigf 



ROME. 51 

time. He carried the actors about in carts, whereas before, they 
weie accustomed to sing or recite in the streets, wherever chance 
ed them ; he also caused their faces to be smeared over with lees 
of wine, instead of acting without disguise, as at first; and he 
introduced a character among the chorus, who, to give the actors 
time to rest, repeated the adventures of some illustrious person. 
The alterations which Thespis made in tragedy, gave room for 
JEschylus to make still further improvements. He was a man 
of superior genius, and took upon himself to reform rather than 
to create tragedy in the new. He gave masks to his actors, 
adorned them with robes and trains, and made them wear bus- 
kins. Instead of a cart, he erected a stage of a moderate ele- 
vation, and entirely changed their style, which, from being merely 
burlesque, became majestic and serious. But the most important 
and essential addition of JEschylus consisted in the vivacity and 
spirit of the action, sustained by the dialogue of the persons of 
the drama, introduced by him — in the artful working up the 
stronger passions, especially of terror and pity, which by alter- 
natcly afflicting and agitating the soul with mournful and terrible 
objects, produces a grateful pleasure and delight from that very 
trouble and emotion; and lastly, in the choice of his subjects, 
which were always great, noble, interesting, and contained within 
due bounds by the unity of time, place, and action. Of the 
ninety tragedies composed by JEschylus, only seven are now 
extant. 

iEschylus was in the sole possession of the glory of the stage, 
when a young rival made his appearance in the person of So 
pliocles, to dispute with him the palm. Twenty times he obtained 
the prize of poetry over his competitors. Of one hundred and 
twenty tragedies which he composed, only seven are now extant, 
but these prove him to have carried the drama almost to perfection. 
Euripides was the cotemporary and the great rival of Sophocles 
Of his seventy -five tragedies, nineteen only remain. 



ROME. 

SECTION I. 

From the Foundation of the City to the Expulsion of Tarquin, 
the last King of Rome, 

1 . The early history of this celebrated empire, like that of the 
other nations of antiquity, is greatly involved in obscurity. Ac- 
cording to the account of poets, JEneas, a Trojan prince, having 
escaped from the destruction of his native city, after a variety of 

How did he carry his actors? What improvement did iEschylus make ? Of bis 
Irsgedies, hew many remain? Who disputed the palm with him? What is said oi 
Euripides? 

1. What is said of the early history ? What account do the poets give of ..Eneas T 



52 ROME. 

adventures, landed on the shores of Italy, where he was kindly 
received by Lalinus, king of the Latins, who gave him his 
daughter Lavinia in marriage, and made him neir to his throne. 
The succession continued in the family of ./Eneas for about four 
hundred years, until the reign of Numitor, who was the fifteenth 
king in a direct line from the Trojan hero. 

2. Rhea Sylvia, the daughter of Numitor, was the mother of 
twin brothers, named Romulus and Remus. The mother, who 
had been a vestal virgin, was condemned to be buried alive, the 
usual punishment for vestals who had suffered a violation of their 
chastity; and the twins were ordered to be thrown into the 
Tiber. But as the water into which they were cast was too 
shallow to drown them, they were discovered and rescued from 
their perilous situation by Faustulus, the king's herdsman, who 
brought them up as his own children. After a variety of adven- 
tures, Romulus and Remus, we are told, were instrumental in 
restoring Numitor, their grandfather, to his throne, from which 
he had been expelled by the usurpation of his brother Aumulius. 

3. Subsequent to this event, the two brothers resolved to build 
a city on the hills where they had passed their youth, and for- 
merly tended their flocks; but a contest arose between them 
relative to the sovereignty, which proved fatal to Remus: ,t is 
related that lie was killed by his brother, who struck him dead 
upon the spot, for contemptuously leaping over the city wall. 

Romulus being thus left the sole commander, persevered in the 
Duilding of the city, which, from his own name, he called Rome, 
and having been elected the first king, he made it the asylum for 
fugitives, and by this means the number of inhabitants rapidly 
increased. 

4. The newly elected monarch is said to have divided the peo 
pie into three tribes, each consisting of tan curias; and also into 
two orders of patricians and plebeians. The senate consisted of 
one hundred of the principal citizens; it was afterwards increased 
to two hundred members. Besides a guard of three hundred 
men to attend his person, the king was always preceded by twelve 
lictors, armed with axes bound up in a bundle of rods ; the duty 
of the lictors was to execute the laws. These wise regulations 
contributed daily to increase the strength of the new city ; mul- 
titudes flocked to it from the adjacent towns, and women only 
were wanted to confirm its growing prosperity. Romulus, in 
order to supply this deficiency, invited the Sabines, a neighbor- 
ing nation, to a festival in honor of Neptune ; and whHe the 
strangers were intent upon the spectacle, a number of the Roman 
youth rushed in among them, and seized the youngest and mosi 
beautiful of the women, and carried them oft* by violence. 

5. A sanguinary war ensued, which had brought the city 
almost to the brink of ruin, when an accommodation was happily 

2. What is said of R'nea Sylvia? To what was the mother condemned? What is 
said of the twins? By whom were they found? What is related of Komnlus and 
Remus? — 3. What did they resolve to do ? What arose? "What is related ? Whai 
did Romulus now do? — 4. How did he divide the people? Of what did the senate 
consist? By what was the kin<* attended? To what did lhe<=^ regulations contribute? 
What were wanted ? How was this deficiency supplied ? — 5. What ensued ? 



ROME. 53 

effected, through the interposition of the Sabine women who had 
been carried off by the Romans. Romulus reigned thirty-seven 
years, and after his death received divine honours, under the 
name of Quirinus. 

6. On the death of Romulus, Numa Pompilius, a native of 
Cures, a Sabine city, was elected the second king of Rome. He 
softened the fierce and warlike disposition of the Romans, Dy 
cultivating the arts of peace, and inculcating obedience to the 
laws and respect for religion. He built the temple of Janus, 
which was to be open during war and shut in time of peace. He 
died at the age of eighty, after a reign of forty-three years. 

7. Tidlus Hostilius was the third king of Rome. His reign is 
memorable for the combat between the Horatii and Curiatii, 
which is said to have taken place during a war against the Albans. 
There were, at the time, in each army, three brothers of one 
birth; those of the Romans called the Horatii, and those of the 
Albans, the Curiatii, all six remarkable for their strength, acti 
vity, and courage; to these it was resolved to commit the fate of 
the two parties. Finally, the champions met in combat; the 
contest was for some time obstinate and doubtful ; victory at 
length declared in favor of Rome; the three Curiatii were slain, 
and only one of the Horatii survived. By this victory the Ro- 
mans became masters of Alba. Hostilius died after a reign of 
thirty-two years. 

8. After the death of the late monarch, Ancus Marcius, the 
grandson of Numa, was elected the fourth king of Rome. He 
conquered the Latins, and suppressed the insurrections of the 
Vientes, Fidinates and Volsci. But his victories over his enemies 
were far less important than his exertions in fortifying and em- 
bellishing the city ; he erected a prison for malefactors, and built 
the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Ancus died in the 
twenty-fourth year of his reign. 

9. Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin the elder, the son of a mer- 
chant of Corinth, next succeeded to the throne. His reign is 
chiefly distinguished for his triumph over the Sabines and Latins, 
and by the embellishment of the city with works of utility and 
magnificence; he built the walls of hewn stone, erected the cir- 
cus, founded the capitol, and constructed the sewers or aqueducts 
for the purpose of draining the city of the rubbish and superfluous 
waters. Tarquin was assassinated in the fifty-sixth year of his 
age, and in the thirty-eighth of his reign. 

10 Servius Tullius, who was the son of a female slave, and 
son-in-law of the late monarch, secured his election to the throne 
through the intrigues of Tanaquil, his mother-in-law. In order 
to determine the increase or diminution of his subjects, he insti- 
tuted the census, by which, at the end of every fifth year, the 

How .on<r did Romulus reign ?— 6. Who succeeded ? What did he do? What waa 
hi9 age? Flow Ion? did he reign?— 7. Who was the third king of Rome? For what 
is his reign memorable ? Relate the circumstances of this combat ?— S. Who was the 
fourth king of Rome? Whom did he conquer ? What did he erect? When :"d he 
die ?— 9. Who next succeeded to the throne ? For what was his reign distinguished? 
What did he build ? How did he die ?— 10. Who succeeded to the :hf one ? What di<J 
be .nstitute ? 

5* 



t>4 KOU£. 

number of the citizens, their dwellings, and the amount of their 
property were ascertained. The census was closed by an expia- 
tory sacrifice, called a lustrum; hence the period of five years 
was usually called a lustrum. 

11. Servius, in the early part of his reign, had married his two 
daughters to the two sons of Tarquin, the late king, whose names 
were Tarquin and Jlruns. But as their dispositions corresponded 
with those of his daughters, he took care to give Tullia, the 
younger, who was of a violent disposition, to Aruns, who was 
mild, and the elder to Tarquin, who was haughty and ambitious, 
hoping thereby, that they would correct each other's defects 
Tarquin and Tullia, however, murdered their consorts, and 
were shortly afterwards intermarried ; and as one crime is often 
productive of another, they caused the assassination of Servius, 
after which Tarquin usurped the throne. Tullia, in her eagerness 
to salute her husband as king, is said to have driven her chariot 
over the dead body of her father, which lay exposed in the street 
which led to the senate. Thus died Servius Tullius, after a 
useful and prosperous reign of forty-four years. 

12. Tarquin, surnamed the proud, having placed himself upon 
the throne, as we have seen, soon disgusted the people by his 
tyranny and cruelty. He refused the late king's body a burial, 
under the pretence of his having been a usurper, and conscious 
of being hated by all virtuous persons, he ordered all those whom 
he suspected to have been attached to Servius to be put to death. 

To divert the attention of the people from his illegal method 
of obtaining the crown, he kept them constantly employed either 
in wars, or in erecting public buildings. While besieging A idea, 
a small town not far from Rome, Sextus, his son, left the camp 
to visit the house of Collatinus, under the mask of friendship. 
He was kindly received by the virtuous Lucretia, the wife ol 
Collatinus, who did not in the least suspect his criminal design. 

13. At midnight he entered her chamber with a drawn sword 
in his hand, and threatened her with instant death if she offered 
to resist. Liicretia, though seeing death so near, was yet inex- 
orable, until being told if she did not yield, he would first kill 
her, and then laying his own slave dead by her side, would re- 
port that he found and killed them bofh in a criminal act. 

Thus the terror of infamy achieved what death could not 
obtain. In the mean time, Lucretia, resolving not to pardon her- 
self even for the crime of another, sent for her husband, Cotta- 
thius, and Spurius, her father, who brought with them Junius 
Brutus* the reputed idiot, whom they accidentally met in the 
way. They found her overwhelmed with grief, and endeavored 
in vain to console her. " No, never," she replied, "never shall 
I find any thing in this world worth living for, after having lost 
my honor ;" and drawing a poignard from beneath her robe, she 
plunged it into her own bosom, and expired without a groan. 

11. What is related of his two daughters ? How did Servius die ? Who succeeded 
to the throne? What did Tullia do. in her eagerness to salute her husband as king! 
—12. What did Tarquin refuse ? What did lie order ? What is reiated of Sextus ?— 
13. At midnight, what did he do? What did lie threaten? How did Collatinus and 
Spurius find Lucretia? What reply d'd she make to them ? How did she die ? 






ROME. 55 

14. The body of Lucveha was brought out and exposed to view 
in the public forum, where Brutus, who had hitherto acted as an 
idiot in order to elude the cruelty of Tarquin, inflamed the ardour 
of the citizens by displaying the* horrid transaction. He obtained 
a decree of the senate, that Tarquin and his family should be for 
ever banished from Rome ; at the same time making it capital for 
any one tc plead for his return. That monarch was accordingly 
expelled from his kingdom, in the twenty-fifth year of his reign, 
p.nd the regal government was abolished, after it had continued 
uvo hundred and forty-four years. 



SECTION II 

From (he abolition of the regal power to tne first Funic War. 
Jl. C. 509 to 449 

1. The regal authority having been abolished, a republican 
form of government was established on its ruins. The supreme 
power was stiil reserved to the senate and people, but instead of 
a king, two magistrates, called consuls, were annually chosen, 
with all authority, privileges, and ensigns of royalty. Brutus, the 
deliverer of this country, and CoUatinus, the husband of Lucretia, 
were chosen the first consuls of Rome. 

2. But scarcely had the new republic began to exist, when a 
conspiracy was formed for its destruction. Some young men of 
the principal families of the state, who had been educated about 
the king, and had shared in all the luxuries and pleasures of the 
court, formed a party in Rome in favor of Tarquin, and under- 
took to re-establish the monarchy. Their design was fortunately 
discovered before it could be carried into execution; and, sur- 
prising as it may appear, the two sons of Brutus were found 
among the number of the conspirators. Few situations could be 
more aft'ecting than that of Brutus; — a father and a judge; im- 
aelled by justice to condemn; by nature to spare the children he 
loved. 

Being brought to trial before him, they were condemned to be 
beheaded in his presence, while the father beheld the sad spec- 
tacle with unaltered countenance. He ceased to be a father, as it 
has been beautifully observed, that he might execute the duties 
of the consul, and chose to live bereft of his children, rather 
than to neglect the public punishment of crime. 

3. The insurrection in the city being thus suppressed, Tarqum 
now resolved to regain his former throne by foreign assistance, 
and having prevailed upon the Vientes to aid him, advanced 
towards Rome at the head of a considerable army ; but he was 
defeated by the Romans, under the command of the two consuls, 

14. What did Brutus do? What did he obtain? How long had the regal govern- 
ment continued? 

1. The regal power being abolished, what was established ? What two magistrates 
were chosen? Who were the two first consuls?— 2. What is said of the republic? 
Who were found amon<? the conspirators? What was their fate? What is said of 
Brutus?— o. What did Tarquin now resolve ? By whom was he defeated I 



56 ROME. 

Brutus and Valerius, who had been elected in the place of Colla- 
tinus. But while the Romans rejoiced in the victory they ob- 
tained, they had to lament the death of Brutus, who fell in the 
engagement, and the Roman matrons honored his memory by 
wearing mourning for a whole year. Valerius returned to the 
city and was the first Roman who enjoyed the honor of a 
triumph. 

4. In the mean time, Tarquin, undaunted by his misfortunes, 
prevailed upon Porsenna, one of the kings of Etruria, to espouse 
his cause, and in conjunction with him, marched directly to 
Rome and laid siege to the city. This war is signalized by the 
daring intrepidity of Horatius Codes., who alone resisted the 
whole force of the enemy at the head of a bridge which led across 
the Tiber, and also by that of Mutius Scsevoto, who entered the 
enemy's camp with a design to assassinate Porsenna, but mis- 
taking the monarch, killed the secretary, who sat by his side. 
On Porsenna's demanding who he was, Mutius, without reserve, 
informed him of his country and his design, and by way of pun- 
ishment of the hand which had missed its aim, he thrust it into 
the fire which was burning upon the altar before him. Porsenna, 
admiring this noble intrepidity, ottered conditions of his peace to 
the Romans on honorable terms. 
*fv 5. Tarquin having induced the Latins to enlist in his cause, 
for a third time approached the city with his army. But while a 
public enemy threatened them from without, domestic disorders 
prevailed within the walls of the city. The plebeians, who were 
poor and oppressed with debt, refused to aid ir spelling the 
enemy unless their debts were remitted on their return, and as 
the Valerian law gave to any condemned citizen the right of 
appealing to the people, the consuls found their authority of no 
avail. 

6. In this state of things, an extraordinary measure was neces- 
sary. A new magistrate was created, styled dictator, who should 
continue in office only as long as the danger of the state required, 
and whose power was absolute, not only over all ranks of the 
state, but even over the very laws, with which he could cnspense 
in cases of public exigency, without consulting the senate or the 
people. <Titus Largius, one of the consuls, being elevated to the 
office of dictator, collected an army, and having restored tran- 
quillity to the state, resigned the dictatorship before the expira- 
tion of six months, with the reputation of having exercised it with 
justice and moderation. 

Shortly after this event, war again was excited by the Tar- 
quins; in this emergency, Posthumius was appointed dictator; 
the Romans were completely victorious, and the sons of Tarquin 
were slain. 

7. On the return of peace, Rome was again disturbed by domes 

What had the Romans to lament?— 4. In the mean time what did Tarquin do? By 
what is this war signalized ? What is related of Horatius and Mutius? — 5 What is 
said of Tarqui-n? "What did the plehe : ans refuse ?— 6. What new magistrate wai 
created? What was his power ? "Who was the first dictator ? What was the fan? 
of the sons of Tarquin? 



ROME. 57 

tic dissensions; the dispute between: the creditors and debtors 
was again renewed. The plebeians, despairing of being able to 
effect a redress of their grievances in Rome, resolved to move and 
form a new establishment without its limits. Accordingly, under 
the conduct of a plebeian, called Sicmius Bellutus, they retired 
to a mountain called Mom Sacer, on the banks of the river Anio, 
about three miles from Rome. 

8. At the news of this defection, the senate' grew alarmed, and 
immediately deputed ten of the most respectable of their body, 
with authority to grant a redress. Menenius Agrippa, one of the 
ten commissioners, eminent for his virtue and wisdom, is said to 
have effected a reconciliation by relating the celebrated fable of 
the disagreement between the stomach and the other members of 
the human body. The application of the fable was so obvious, that 
the people unanimously cried out, that Agrippa should lead them 
back to Rome. Before their departure, however, it was proposed 
by Lucius Junius, that for their future security a new order of 
magistrates should be created, who should have the power of 
annulling, by a single vote, any measure which they should deem 
prejudicial to the interests of the people. Those magistrates, 
called tribunes, were annually elected; their number, which at 
first was five, afterwards increased to ten. By this measure the 
aristocracy was restrained and the fury of the populace checked. 
At the same time two magistrates, styled aediles, were appointed, 
whose duty it was to assist the tribunes and take charge of the 
public buildings. 

9. During the late separation, agriculture having been neglect- 
ed, a famine was the consequence the following season; but the 
timely arrival of a large quantity of corn from Sicily prevented 
the evil consequences that were likely to ensue. At this time the 
resentment of the people was strongly excited against Coriolanus, 
who insisted that the corn should not be distributed until the 
grievances of the senate were removed ; for which proposition he 
was summoned by the tribunes to a trial before the people, and 
was condemned to perpetual banishment. He retired to the 
Volsci, and being appointed to the command of their army, he 
invaded the Roman territories and carried his devastations to the 
very walls of the city; but he was at length prevailed upon, by 
the earnest entreaties of his mother and his wife, to withdraw his 
army. 

10. The proposal of the Agrarian law, which had fisr its object 
the division of the land obtained by conquest equally among the 
people, proved a source, of discord between the phbeians and 
patricians; while the former repeatedly urged the measure, the 
latter as often strenuously opposed the design; the state was in 

7. What dispute was again renewed? What did the plebeians resolve to do?— 
8. At the news of this defection, what did the senate do? What is rela'.ed of Agrippa? 
For their future security what was done ? What were these magistrates called? A» 
the same time, what other two magistrates were appointed ? — 0. During the separa- 
tion, what was neglected ? What followed ? Against whom was the resentment of 
the people excited? To what .was he sentenced? Where did he retire? W hat is 
re'ated of him? — 10 What was a source cf discord between the plebeians and putri- 
sians? 



58 ROME. 

consequence thrown into violent dissensions. Through the influ- 
ence of the tribune, Pblero, a law was passed that the election of 
the tribunes should beWade in the coinitia, or public meetings of 
the people. By this laW the supreme authority was taken from 
the patricians and placed in the hands of the plebeians, and the 
Roman government became a democracy. 

11. During the dissensions which grew out of the proposition 
for the Agrarian law, Quinctius Cincinnatus, a man eminent for 
his wisdom and virtue, and who had retired from public life, was 
created dictator; but scarcely had he restored tranquillity to the 
state and resigned his office, than new dangers obliged him a 
second time to resume it. The iEqui, having invaded the terri- 
tory of the Romans, enclosed the army of the consul Minutius, 
who had been sent to oppose them, in a defile between two rnoilri 
tains, from which there was no egress. Cincinnatus , having 
raised another army, placed himself at its head, and having 
defeated the iEqui, and having rescued the army of the consul 
from their perilous situation, returned in triumph to the city, 
and after holding' the high office of dictator only for the space of 
fourteen days, he resigned its honors and again retired to labor 
on his farm. 

12. Previous to this period the Romans had not possessed r.nv 
written body of laws. Under the regal government, the monarch 
administered justice, and the consuls who succeeded them exer- 
cised the same authority. But their arbitrary decisions were 
frequently the subject of complaint, and all ranks of the citizei s 
became desirous of having a fixed code of laws for the security 
of their rights. Three commissioners were accordingly sent to 
collect from the most civilized states of Greece and Italy, such 
laws as were deemed useful in forming a suitable code. 

13. On the return of the commissioners, ten of the principal 
senators, called decemvirs, were appointed to digest a body of 
laws, and were invested with absolute power for one. year. This 
gave rise to those celebrated statutes, distinguished by the name 
of the Laws of the Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of the 
Roman jurisprudence, and continued to be held in the greatest 
esteem, during the most flourishing period of the republic. Those 
laws manifest the stern spirit of the people, and were marked by 
their severity. Nine crimes were punishable with death, one ol 
which was parricide, but to the honor of the Romans, it might 
be observed, that this crime was unknown among them for more 
than five hundred years after the foundation of the city. 

14. The decemvirs, during the first year of their power, go • 
verned with equity and moderation ; each in his turn presided for 
a day, and exercised the sovereign authority. At the expiration 
of the term for which they were appointed, under a pretence that 
some laws were yet wanting to complete the code, they entreated 

What law was passed ? Whit was the nature of this law ? — 11. Who at this time 
was created dictator? What is said of Cincinnatus? — 12. What had the Romans 
neve: possessed? For what were the commissioners sent to Greece ? — 13. On the'r 
return, what was done? To what did this give rise? What do these laws manifest? 
How many crimes were punisi ahle with death ? — 14. What is said of the decemvirs 7 
What did they entreat? 



ROME. 59 

the senate to allow them further time, but haying experienced the 
charms of power, they were unwilling to retiie : they soon threw 
off" the mask of moderation, and regardless of the approbation, 
either of the senate or the people, resolved to continue in decem- 
virate. A conduct so notorious produced universal discontent, 
at d their flagrant abuse of power brought a speedy termination 
of their office. 

15. While the army was encamped about ten miles from Rome, 
during a war with the Sabines and Volsci, Appius, one of the 
leading members of the decemvirate, who remained in the city, 
appointed Sicinius Dentatus,& tribune, who, on account of his ex- 
traordinary valor and exploits, was called the Roman Achilles, 
legate, and put him at the head of the supplies which were sent to 
reinforce the army in the field. On his arrival in the camp, he 
was appointed at the head of a hundred men, to discover a more 
commodious place for encampment, as he had very candidly 
assured the commanders that their present situation was badly 
chosen. The soldiers, However, who composed his escort, were 
assassins, and had engaged to murder him. With this view, they 
led him into the hollow of a mountain, where they intended to 
put into execution their design. Dentatus now perceived, when 
too late, the treachery of the decemvirs, but resolving to sell his 
life as dearly as possible, he put his back against a rock, and de- 
fended himself with so much bravery, that he killed no less than 
fifteen, and wounded thirty of his assailants before they were able 
to accomplish their design. 

16. Another transaction, equally atrocious, inspired the citizens 
with a resolution to break all measures of obedience. While 
Appius, who remained in the city, was seated on his tribunal to 
dispense justice, he saw a young female of exquisite Beauty, 
named Virginia, passing to one of the public schools, attended 
bv a matron, her nurse. Her charms, heightened by that modest 
glow which innocence and virtue lend to nature, inflamed his 
heart; but being himself unable to gratify his desires, he em- 
ployed a profligate dependent to claim her as his own, on the 
pretence of her being the daughter of one of his female slaves 
The claim being referred to his tribunal, Appius pronounced an 
infamous sentence, by which the innocent victim was torn from 
the embraces of her parents, and placed within the reach of his 
own power. 

17. In the mean time, Virginius, her father, did all that a 
parent could, to save the liberty and honor of his daughter, but 
finding that all was over, asked permission to take his last fare- 
well of one whom he had so long considered as his child. With 
this Appius complied, on condition that their endearments should 
pass in his presence. Virginius, with the most poignant anguish, 
took his almost expiring daughter in his arms, for a while sup- 
ported her head upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that 

What did they throw off?— 15. What is related of Appius ? What wen; the soldiers 
Vvho formed the escort of Dentatus? How many did he kill and wound? — 16. What 
Other transaction is related of Appius whiic seated on his tribunal? What sentence 
did he pronounce ? — L? In the mean time, what did Virginius do ? Wliat did l.e ask ? 



60 ROME. 

rolled down her lovely face, then seizing a knife that lay on one 
of the shambles in the forum, he addressed his daughter, saying, 
" My dearest child — this, this only can preserve your freedom 
and your honour." Thus saying, he buried the weapon in her 
breast, then holding it up, reeking from her wound, he exclaimed, 
" By this blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods." 
He then ran through the city wildly calling on the people to strike 
for their freedom, and thence to the camp to spread the flame of 
liberty throughout the army. Jlppius and Oppius died by their 
own hands in prison ,• their colleagues were driven into exile, 
and the decemvirate was abolished, after it had continued foi 
three years, and the consuls were again restored. 

18. Unfortunately for Rome, there always appeared some 
cause left for internal dissensions. By an.early law of the state, 
plebeians were prohibited to intermarry with the patricians, and 
the office of consul was limited to the latter. After a long con- 
test, the law prohibiting intermarriage was repealed. This con 
cession, it was hoped, would satisfy the people, but it only 
stimulated them to urge their claim to be admitted to have a share 
in the consulship 5 and on the occurrence of war, refused to en- 
list their names unless their demand was granted. At length it 
was agreed on both sides, that instead of the consuls, six military 
tribunes should be chosen, three from the patricians, and three 
from the plebeians. This institution was soon discontinued, and 
*he consuls were again restored. 

19. The consuls being thus restored, in order to lighten the 
weight of their duties, two new magistrates were created, styled 
censors, to be chosen every fifth year. Their duty was to esti- 
mate the number and the estates of the people, to distribute them 
into th'eir proper classes, to inspect the morals and manners of 
their fellow-citizens. The office was one of great dignity and 
importance, and was exercised for nearly one hundred years by 
the patricians, afterwards by men of consular dignity, and finally 
by the emperors. 

20. The senate, in order to avoid the evils which frequently 
arose from the people's refusing to enlist in the army, adopted the 
wise expedient of giving a regular pay to the troops. From this 
period, the Roman system of war assumed a new aspect. The 
senate had the army under its immediate control; the enter- 
prises of the republic were more extensive, and its success more 
signal and important. As the art of war now became a profes- 
sion, instead of an occasional employment, it was in consequence 
greatly improved, and from this period the Roman territory began 
rapidly to extend. 

21. The inhabitants of the city of Veil had ; repeatedly com- 
mitted depredations on the Roman territories ;' it was at length 
decreed by the Roman senate, that Veii should be destroyed, 

How did he address bis daughter ! "What did he then do? What was the fate ot 
Appius atid Oppius? — 19. By a law of the state, what were the plebeians prohibited ! 
Whal was done after a long contest? At length, what was agreed on uoth sidea . 
—19. What two new magistrates were now created? What was their duty?— 20. 
What wise expedient did the senate adopt? What were the consequ jr.gea o.f this 
measure? — 21. What was at leiurth decreed " 



HUME. 61 

whatever it might cost. Accordingly, a siege was commenced, 
which continued with various success for ten years. At length', 
in order to give greater vigour to the operations, Camillas was 
created dictator, and to him was intrusted the sole management 
of the lcng protracted war. He caused a passage to be opened 
under ground, which led into the very citadel, and giving his men 
directions how to enter the breach, the city was taken and de- 
stroyed. Camillus was honored with a splendid triumph, in 
which his chariot was drawn by four white horses; but being 
afterwards accused of having appropriated a part of the plunder 
of Veii to his own use, indignant at the ingratitude of his coun- 
trymen, he went into voluntary banishment. 

22. It was not long before the Romans had cause to repent of 
their injustice towards the only man who was able to save their 
country from ruin. 

The Gauls, a barbarous and warlike people, having crossed the 
Alps into the northern part of Italy, under Brennus, their king, 
laid siege to Clusium, a city of Etruria. The inhabitants of £lu- 
sium having applied for assistance to the Romans, the senate sent 
three patricians of the Fabian family on an embassy to Brennus, 
to inquire into the cause of offence given by the citizens of Clu- 
sium. To this he sternly replied, that k4 the right of valiant men 
lay in their swords : that the Romans themselves had no other 
right to the cities they had conquered." The ambassadors, on 
entering the city, assisted the inhabitants against the assailants. 
This conduct so incensed B minus, that he immediately raised 
the siege of Clusium, and marched directly for Rome, ami in a 
great battle on the banks of the Allia, he defeated the Roman 
army with great slaughter. 

23. After this victory, the Gauls entered Rome, put to the 
sword all the inhabitants that fell in their way, pillaged the city, 
and then burnt it to ashes. They next laid siege to the capital, 
which the Romans defended with the utmost bravery. At length 
having discovered a way which led to the top of the Tarpeiaix 
rock, a body of Gauls undertook the difficult task of gaining the 
summit under the cover of the night, and even succeeded in ac- 
complishing their design, while the Roman sentinel was asleep. 
At this moment, the gabbling of some sacred geese in the temple 
of Juno roused the garrison, and through the exertions of Marias 
Manlias, the Gauls were instantly thrown headlong aown the 
precipice. 

24. As the Gauls now gave up all hope of being able to reduce 
the capitol, they agreed to quit the city, on condition that the 
Romans would pay \\\em one thousand pounds' weight of gold ; 
hut after the gold was brought forth, the Gauls endeavored, by 
fraudulent weights, to impose upon the Romans; and when the 
latter offered to complain, Brennus, casting his sword and belt 

Who was created dictator? What di^ 1.3 cause? How was he honoured? Of 
jvhat was he accused?— >2. What is said o£ the Gauls? What reply did BrenmiH 
Cnake to the embassy sent .oy the Romans? What did one or me ambassadors do? 
How did Brennus resent this conduct? — 23. On entering Rome, what did the Gauls 
Jo? Having discovered away to the Tarpeian rock, what did the Gauls ''o? How 
was the garrison roused?— 24. To what did me Gauls agree? 

r» 



62 ROMF. 

into the scale, replied, that it was the only portion of the van- 
quished to suffer. At this moment, Camitlus, who in the mean 
time had been restored to favor and again appointed dictator, 
entered the gates of the city at the head of a large army. Having 
been informed of the insolence of the enemy, he ordered the gold 
to b« carried back to the capitol, saying, that it had been the man- 
ner of the Romans to ransom their country by steel, and not by 
go d. Upon this a battle ensued, in which the Gauls were en- 
tirely routed, and the Roman territories delivered from those for- 
midable invaders. 

25. After the defeat of the Gauls, through the exertions of Ca- 
millus, who was honored as the father of his country and the 
second founder of Rome, the city soon began again to rise from 
its ashes. Shortly after this, Manlius, whose patriotism and 
valor had shone so conspicuous in defending the capitol and 
saving the last remains of Rome, abandoned himself to ambitious 
views; and being accused of aspiring to the sovereign power, he 
was sentenced to be thrown headlong from the Tarpeian rock. 
Thus the place which had been the theatre of his glory, became 
that of his punishment and infamy. 

26. The Romans next turned tl^eir arms against the Samnites, 
who inhabited an extensive tract of country in the south of Italy. 
During this contest, which lasted for about fifty years, the Romans 
were generally successful, with the exception of a defeat sus- 
tained near Caudium, when their whole army was compelled to 
pass under the yoke, formed by two spears placed upright and a 
third placed across them. But roused by this defeat rather than 
discouraged, the Romans, the following year, having created 
Papirius Cursor, dictator, gained a signal victory over the Sam- 
nites, and compelled them in turn to undergo the same disgrace: 
and pursuing their good fortune under labius Maximus and 
JDecius, they finally brought them under subjection. 

27. A war shortly afterwards followed between the Romans 
and Latins; but as their clothing, arms and language were simi- 
lar, the most exact discipline was necessary in order to prevent 
confusion in the engagement. Orders were therefore issued by 
Manlius, the consul, that no soldier should leave his ranks under 
the penalty of death. When the armies were drawn out in order 
of battle, Melius, a Latin, challenged to single combat any one 
of the Roman knights. Upon this, Titus Manlius, the son of the 
consul, forgetful of the orders of his father, accepted the chal- 
lenge, and slew his adversary. Then taking the spoils of the 
enemy, he hastened to lay them at the feet of the consul, who, 
with tears in his eyes, told him that as he had violated militaiy 
discipline, he had reduced him to the deplorable extremity of 
sacrificing his son or his country, but added, that a thousand lives 
would be well lost in such a cause; and accordingly ordered him 

At this moment who appeared at the gales of the city ? What did he order ? Wlmt 
ensued ?— 25. After the defeat of the Gauls, what took place? What is related of 
Manlius? — 2G. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms? Where did they 
suffer a defeat? AVho was created dictator ?— 27. What war next followed? What 
-mlcra were issued tv Manlius? What is related of Titus, his son? 



ROME. 6*3 

to be beheaded. In tlio mean time the battle ensued, in which the 
Latins were vanquished, and submitted to the Romans. 

28. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Samnites, being unable 
to defend themselves, applied for aid to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the 
most celebrated general of his age. 

Having accepted the invitation, Pyrrhus immediately sailed for 
Tarentum, with an army of thirty thousand men and twenty ele- 
phants? The consul, Lavinus, hastened to oppose him; but the 
Romans, unaccustomed to the mode of fighting with elephants, 
were defeated with the loss of fifteen thousand men ; but the loss 
on the side of the Grecian monarch was nearly the same, and he 
was heard to say, that another such victory would compel him 
to abandon his enterprise. Struck with admiration at the heroism 
of the enemy, he exclaimed, " with what ease could I conquer the 
wcrld-, had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their 
king." 

29. The conduct of Fabricius, the Roman general, during tiiis 
war, claims universal admiration. On one occasion, having re- 
ceived a letter from the physician of Pyrrhus, importing that for 
a proper reward he would poison the king, the noble Roman, in- 
dignant at so base a proposal, gave immediate information of it 
to Pyrrhus, who, admiring the generosity of his enemy, exclaim- 
ed, i4 It is easier to turn the sun from its course, than Fabricius 
from the path of honor." Pyrrhus, after suffering a total defeat 
near Beneventum, withdrew to his own dominions, and the Ro- 
mans, shortly after his departure, became masters of all the south- 
ern part of Italy. 



SECTION III. 

From the first Punic War to the conquest of Greece, Jl. C. 264 

to 133. 

1. As the history of Rome now becomes connected with that 
of Carthage and Sicily, it may not be improper to introduce here 
a short account of those states. Carthage is said to have been 
founded by Dido, with a colony of Tyrians, about nine hundred 
years before the Christian era. The government was at first 
monarchical, but afterwards became republican: it is highly com- 
mended by Aristotle as one of the most perfect of antiquity, but 
according to the same author, it had two great defects^ the first. 
was the investing the same person with different public employ- 
ments; and the second, was that a certain income was required 
before a man could attain to any important office, by which means 
poverty might exclude a person of the most exalted merit from 
holding a civil employment. 

'2$. To whom did the Tarentines apply for aid ? Who was nent to oppose him ? "Who! 
was the issue of the battle? What did Pyrrhus exclaim?— 29. What is related of 
Fabricius? What did Pyrrhus fay of him? 

I What is said of Carthage 7 Of the government? What were its defects': 



64 ROME. 

2. The supreme power was placed in the senate; there were 
two magistrates annually elected, called Seffetes, whose autho- 
rity in Carthage answered to that of the consuls at Rome. Com- 
merce was the chief occupation of the Carthaginians, to which 
they were indebted for their wealth and power. Their religion 
was a degrading superstition; the cruel practice of offering human 
victims was exercised among them. At the time of the Punic 
wars, the city of Carthage had risen in wealth and commercial 
importance surpassing any other city in the world. It had under 
its dominion a number of towns in Africa, bordering on the 
Mediterranean, besides a great part of Spain, Sicily, and other 
islands. 

3. From Egypt, the Carthaginians brought flax, paper, corn, &c. : 
from the coast of the Red Sea, spices, perfumes, gold, pearls and 
precious stones; from Tyre and Phoenicia, purple, scarlet and the 
like: in a word, they brought from various countries all things 
that contribute not only to the convenience, but even to the lux- 
ury and pleasures of life. They are represented as being greatly 
wanting in honor and integrity ; cunning, duplicity and breach 
of faith seems to have been a distinguishing feature in their cha- 
racter; hence the phrase — Punica Fides — Punic Faith, was used 
to denote treachery. 

4. The Carthaginians seem never to have excelled as a literary 
people; there were, however, among them several distinguished 
scholars. The great Hannibal, who in all respects was the orna- 
ment of the city, was not unacquainted with polite literature 
iMago, another celebrated general, wrote twenty-eight volumes 
upon husbandry, which were afterwards much esteemed by the 
Romans. There is still extant a Greek version of an account 
written by Hanno,, relating to a voyage made by him with a con- 
siderable fleet round Africa, for the settling of different colonies. 
Clifomachus, called in the Punic tongue tfsdrubal, was a great 
philosopher. Carthage produced several eminent generals, among 
whom Hamilcar, Jlsdrubal, and Hannibal were the most distin 
guished. 

5. Sicily is said to have been settled by a colony of Pha j nicia?is 
previous to the Trojan war; but the Greeks at a later period made 
settlements on the island. It contained many large and populous 
cities; of these Syracuse was the most populous and commercial 
This city, at an early period, was under a democratical form ol 
government, which in the course of time was overthrown, and a 
monarchy established in its stead. Gelon, one of its sovereigns, 
is represented as possessed of every virtue; but the tyranny and 
cruelty of his successors caused a revolution in the state, and the 
regal government was abolished. After a period of sixty years, 
it was asrain restored by Dionysius, a man of great abilities; but 
his son iDionysius, the younger, a weak and capricious tyrant, 

2. In what was the power placed? What were the magistrates cal.ed? What iS 
said of religion? Of Carthage, at the rime of the Punic wars? — 3. What did the Car- 
thaginians bring from Egypt? From Tyre? How are they represented?— 3. Did they 
ever excel as a literary people? What is said of Hannibal? Of Mago? What ;d 
still extant? What did Cnrlhage produce? —5 What is said of Sicily? What did it 
contain? What is said of Gelon ? What was the fate of Dionysius the younger? 



ROME. 65 

was dethroned by the aid of Timoleon, an illustrious Corinthian, 
and banished to Corinth, where he ended his life in poverty. 

6. The Romans, being anxious to extend their conquests, soon 
found an opportunity of indulging in their design. The Mamer- 
tines, a people of Campania, obtained assistance of the Romans 
in a war with Hiero, king of Syracuse ; the Syracusans, in their 
turn, assisted the Carthaginians ; a war was thus brought on be- 
tween the latter and the Romans, called the first Punic War. 
The first object of both powers was to obtain possession of Mes- 
sina, a city which commanded the passage of the straits, but it 
finally became a contest for the dominion of the whole island. 

7. But there seemed an insurmountable obstacle to the ambi- 
tion of Rome ; she had no fleet ; while Carthage was sovereign of 
the sea. The Romans, however, resolved to overcome every ob- 
stacle that lay in their way to conquest. A Carthaginian ves- 
sel which happened in a storm to be driven on the coast, served 
as a model ; and in the short space of two months, a fleet consist- 
ing of one hundred vessels was constructed and ready for sea. 
The consul Duilhus, was appointed to the command of the arma- 
ment, and though much inferior to the enemy in the management 
of his fleet, yet he gained the first naval victory, defeated the 
Carthaginians, and took fifty of their vessels. 

8. At the commencement of the war, the Syracusans, who had 
confederated with the Carthaginians, changed their course and 
joined the Romans. The Carthaginians, however, after a long 
siege, took the city of Agrigentum. A second naval engagement 
soon afterwards took place, in which the Romans were again 
victorious; the Carthaginians, under Hanno and Hamikar, lost 
sixty of their vessels. The consul, .Regulus, in the mean time, 
was sent by the senate to carry the war into Afnca; and having 
landed on the coast, defeated the Carthaginians, and carried his 
victorious arms to the very walls of their capital. But here his 
good fortune seemed to forsake him; he was signally defeated by 
the Carthaginians under the command of Xanthippus, a Spartan 
general, and fell into the hands of the enemy. 

9. The Carthaginians, weary of continuing the war, became 
desirous of treating for peace, and with this view, they sent am- 
bassadors to Rome, and among their number was Regulus, who 
had now been detained four years a prisoner, having previously 
exacted a promise on oath, that he would return to Carthage if 
the negotiation should fail. But Regulus, not deeming the terms 
of peace sufficiently advantageous to his country, strenuously 
imposed their being accepted, and returned to Carthage, where, 
after the most cruel tortures, he was finally put to death, by being 
pi iced in a barrel driven full of nails, pointing inwards, and in 
this painful situation he continued until he died. 

C.^What occasioned the first Punic War? What was the object of both powers?— 
7. What was an obstacle to the ambition of Rome? How did the Romans surmount 
the difficulty ? Who was appointed to command the fleet? What was the issue of the 
engagement ?— 3. What is said of the Syracusans ? What was the result of the second 
naval engagement ? What is related of Regulus ?— 9. Whom did the Carthaginians 
send to Rome to negotiate a peace? What did Regulus do? How was he put to 
death ? 



66 ROME. 

10. The war was now renewed on both sides with more than 
former animosity; at length <he perseverance of the Romans was 
crowned with success. Peace was granted to the Carthaginians 
on the most humiliating conditions ; it was agreed that they should 
abandon Sicily, pay the Romans three thousand two hundred 
talents, and release their captives. Thus terminated the first 
Punic War, after it had continued twenty-four years. Sicily was 
now declared a Roman province, but Syracuse still maintained 
its independent government. After this war, the Romans com- 
pleted the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul ; and now being at peace 
with all mankind, they closed the temple of Janus for the first 
time since the reign of Numa. 

11. The Carthaginians had made peace only, because they 
were no longer able to continue the war; they therefore took the 
earliest opportunity of breaking the treaty. They besieged Sa 
guntum, a city in Spain, then in alliance with Rome; and although 
requested to desist, they refused to comply : this refusal led to a 
second Punic War. To Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, the 
Carthaginians intrusted the command of their army. This extra- 
ordinary man, whilst very young, was brought before the altar 
and made to take an oath that he never would be in friendship 
with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their power until he 
or they should be no more. Being now raised to the chief com 
mand of the forces of his country, though only in the twenty-sixth 
year of his age, he formed the bold design of carrying the war 
into Italy, as the Romans had before carried it into the dominions 
of Carthage. 

12. For this purpose, leaving Hanno to guard his conquest in 
Spain, he crossed the Pyrenean mountain, entered Gaul, and with 
an army of fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse, in a short 
time appeared at the foot of the Alps. It was now in the mid.sl 
of winter; the prodigious height of the mountains, their steepness, 
and summits covered with snow, presented a picture that might 
have discouraged an ordinary individual. But nothing could 
subdue the resolution of the Carthaginian general : at the end of 
fifteen days, he effected the passage of the Alps and found himself 
on the plains of Italy ; but with only a half of his numerous army. 

13. Scarcely had he arrived in Italy, when the Romans hastened 
to oppose his progress, over whom he gained four memorable vic- 
tories, — the first, over Scipio near Ticinus; the second, over 
Sempronius, the consul, in which twenty-six thousand Romans 
were destroyed ; the third, near lake Thrasimenus over Flami- 
nius; and the fourth at Cannae, over JEmilius and Vano. Tho 
last was the most memorable defeat the Romans ever sustained. 
More than forty thousand of their troops were left dead upon the 
field, together with the consul JEmilius. Among ihe slain were 
so many Roman knights, that Hannibal is said to have sent to 

10. On what conditions was peace granted to the Carthaginians? After the conques? 
of Cisalpine Gaul, what did the Romans do ? — 11. What led to the second Punic War ' 
To whom did 1h<*. Carthaginians intrust the command of their army ? What is said ol 
him whilst young? What bold design did he form? — 12. Leaving Ilanuo in Spaitx 
what did Hannibal do? How many clays did lie occupy in crossing the Alps? 13. 
What four memorable victories did be now gain? 



ROME 67 

Carthage three bushels of gold rings, which they wore on their 
fingers. In the mean time, Hannibal, either finding it impracti- 
cable to march directly to Rome, or wishing to give his forces rest 
after so signal a victory, led them to Capua, where he resolved to 
spend the winter. 

14. The chief command of the Roman forces was now given to 
Fabius Maximus, styled the Shield, and to Marcellus, the Sword, 
of Rome. After the battle of Cannae, the good fortune of the 
Carthaginian general seemed to forsake him. At the siege of 
Nola he was repulsed with considerable loss, by Marcellus, and 
his army was harassed and weakened by Fabius. Marcellus 
took the city of Syracuse after a siege of three years, during 
which time it was chiefly defended by the genius of the cele- 
brated Archimedes. The inhabitants were put to the sword, and 
among them Archimedes himself, who was found by a Roman 
soldier engaged in his study. 

15. A large army of Carthaginians, sent from Spain into Italy, 
under the command of Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was 
defeated, and their general slain by the Romans, under the com- 
mand of the consuls, Livy and Nero. The very niffht on which 
Hannibal was assured of the arrival of his brother, Asdrubal's head 
was cut oft' and thrown into his camp. Scipio, the younger. 
surnamed Africanus, after his return from the conquest of Spain, 
was made consul at the early age of twenty-nine; but instead of 
opposing Hannibal in Italy, formed a wiser plan which was to 
carry the war into Africa. On his arrival at the very walls of their 
capital, the Carthaginians, alarmed for the fate of their empire, 
immediately recalled Hannibal from Italy. On receiving this 
order, he hastened to return to his native country, after having 
kept possession of the most beautiful parts of Italy for about 
fifteen years. 

1G. Having arrived in Africa, he marched to Adrumetum, and 
finally upon the plains of Zama he was met by Scipio at the head 
of the Roman army, and after a fruitless attempt to negotiate a 
peace, a tremendous battle ensued, in which the Carthaginians 
were totally defeated, with the loss of twenty thousand of their 
troops, which were left dead upon the plain, and as many more 
taken prisoners. This victory was followed by a peace, on con- 
ditions that Carthage should abandon Spain, Sicily, and all the 
islands in the Mediterranean, surrender all their prisoners, give 
up their whole ileet, except ten galleys, and in future undertake 
war without the consent of the Romans. To these hard con- 
ditions, the Carthaginians were compelled to subscribe. Thus 
terminated the Second Punic War, after having continued for 
seventeen years. 

17. Hannibal, after this event, passed the last thirteen years of 
his life in exile from his native country, and finally took refuge 

Whatissa:dof the last? How mar.y rings did he send to Carthage?— 14. To whom was 
the command of the Roman forces now given? "What were they styled ? By whom 
was the city of Syracuse defended? What was his fate?— 15. What is said of the Car- 
thaginian army? What plan did Scipio, the younger, form? On his arrival what 
did the Carthaginians do? How long had he remained in Italy? — 16. Where waa 
He met by Scipio? What was the issue of the battle? "What were ...e condir.onsof 
th*. peace?— 17. Where did Hannibal finally take refuge? How did he die* 



68 ROME. 

in the court cf Prusias, king of Bithynia. The Romans, who 
were bent on his destruction, sent iEmilius, one of their most 
celebrated generals, to demand him from this king, who, fearing 
the resentment of Rome, determined to deliver up ills guest. The 
unfortunate general, in order to avoid falling into the hands of 
his enemies, destroyed himself by poison. _ 

18. While the Romans were engaged in hostilities with the 
Carthaginians, they also carried on a vigorous war against Philip, 
king of Macedonia, which finally terminated in favour of Rome. 
After this, the Romans turned their arms against Antiochus the 
Great, king of Syria, who was defeated by Scipio, surnamed 
Asiaticus, in the great battle of Magnesia. A second war fol- 
lowed with Macedonia, which terminated in the defeat of Perseus, 
the last king of that country, at the battle of Pydna ; after which 
Macedonia was reduced to a Roman province. 

19. About this time, Massinissa, the Numidian, made incur- 
sions into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, who at 
tempted to repel the invasion. The Romans pretending this as 
a violation of their treaty, laid hold of it as a pretext for com- 
mencing the third Punic War, with a determination not to desist 
until the city of Carthage should be destroyed. Porcius Cato, 
one of the most prominent members of the senate, strongly in- 
sisted on this measure, and usually concluded his speeches in 
these words : Delenda est Carthago, Carthage must be destroyed. 

The Carthaginians, conscious of the superiority of the Romans, 
endeavored by every species of submission to evert the impend- 
ing" ruin of their country. They yielded to the Romans their 
ships, their arms, and munitions of war; but they were still re- 
quired to abandon their capital, that it might be levelled to the 
ground. 

20. This demand was received with mingled feelings of sorrow 
and despair ; but finding no alternative, the wretched Carthagi- 
nians began to prepare to suffer the utmost extremities, in order 
to save the seat of their empire. The vessels of gold and silver 
which adorned their luxurious banquets, were now converted into 
arms ; even the women parted with their ornaments, and cut off 
their hair, to be made into bow-strings. After a desperate re- 
sistance for three years, the city was taken by Scipio, also called 
Africanus, and destroyed. Thus was Carthage, one of the most 
renowned cities of antiquity, with its walls and temples razed to 
its foundation. Such of the inhabitants as refused to surrender 
themselves prisoners of war, either fell by the sword, or perished 
in the ruins of their city. The scenes of horror presented on the 
occasion, it is said, even forced tears from the eyes of the Roman 
general. 

21. The destruction of Carthage was succeeded by the con- 
quests of several other states. Corinth was taken and destroyed 

IP. What other war did the Ronrans carry on at this time ? Again-st whom did they 
next turn their arms? What happened after the battle of Pydna? — 19. What led to 
the third Punic war? How did Ca'o usually conclude his speeches? What did the 
Carthaginians dc ? — '20. How was this demand received? What did he make of their 
vessels of gold and silver? How long did the siege last? What is said of the scene? 
—21. What was the reduction of Carthage succeeded by? What is related of tne ia 
Habitants of Numantia* 



ROME. 69 

by (he consul Mummius, and Greece reduced to a Roman pro- 
vince. Scipio having laid siege io Numantia, a city in Spain, 
the inhabitants, to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy, set 
lire to the town, and perished in the flames. After this event-, 
Spain fell under the dominion of Rome. 



SECTION IV. 

The Sedition of the Gmcchii ; Civil Wars ; Conspiracy of 
Catiline. A. C. 133 to 63. 

1. The Romans, who had been long distinguished for tempe- 
rance and military enterprise, were not as yet a literary people ; 
the arts and sciences had been but little cultivated among them 
After the conquest of Greece, a ftivorable change took place ; 
with the luxury of that nation was introduced at Rome a taste 
for literature. But as they grew in power, luxury and a corrup 
tion of manners began to prevail. By the destruction of Carthage, 
Rome was left without a rival ; her arms were everywhere suc- 
cessful. 

2. But when she had triumphed over all her enemies abroad, 
domestic dissensions began to prevail at home. Tiberius^ and 
Caius Gracchus, men of eloquence and influence, distinguished 
themselves by declaiming against the corruptions which began to 
prevail among the great, and by asserting the claims of the people. 
Tiberius, the elder of the two brothers, while tribune, with a 
view of checking the power of the patricians, and abridging their 
immense estates, endeavored to revive the Licinian law, which 
ordained that no citizen should possess more than five hundred 
acres of public land. In consequence of this proposal a tumult 
followed, in which Tiberius, together with three hundred of his 
friends, was slain in the streets of Rome by the partisans of the 
senate. 

3. When this tragical event took place, Caius Gracchus, in the 
twenty -first year of his age, was yet in retirement, engaged in 
the quiet pursuit of study. The fatal example of his brother did 
not deter him from following a similar career. Having been 
elected to the tribuneship, he procured an edict granting the free- 
dom of the city to the inhabitants of Latium, and afterwards to 
all the people on that side of the Alps ; he also procured that the 
price of corn should be fixed at a moderate rate, and a monthly 
distribution of it among the people. He then proceeded to an 
inspection into the late corruptions of the senate, the whole body 
of which being convicted of bribery, extortion, and sale of offices 
These measures did not fail to enkindle the resentment of that 
body; Gracchus was marked out for destruction, and he finally 

1. What is said of the Romans ? After the conquest of Greece, what took place? 
— 2. What now began to prevail ? What did Tiberias Gracchus endeavour to revive? 
In consequence of this, what followed? — 3. Having- been elected to liie tribuneship, 
what dfd Caius Gracchus procure? What did he. then proceed to do ? What was 
Iho consequence cf these measures ? 



70 HOME. 

fell a victim to their vengeance, with three tnousand of his parti- 
sans, who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome, by the consul 
Opimius. 

4. Jugurtha, the grandson of the famous Mamiissa, attempted 
to usurp the throne of Numidia, by destroying his cousins 
Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons of the late king Micipsa. Th? 
elder fell a victim to his treachery, but Adherbal, the younger, 
having escaped, applied for assistance to the senate of Rome, but 
that body being bribed by Jugurtha, divided the kingdom between 
the two. Jugurtha having invaded the territories of Adherbal, 
defeated and slew him in battle, then seized upon his whole, king- 
dom ; but by this act he drew upon himself the resentment of 
Rome. War having been declared against him, the command 
of the army was at first confided to Metellus, but when on the 
point of gaining a complete triumph over the king of Numidia, 
he was supplanted in the command by the intrigues of Cain* 
Marius, who had the honor of terminating the war. Jugurtha 
was defeated and taken prisoner, and led to Rome in chains, and 
having adorned the triumph of the conqueror, was cast into prison 
and starved to death. 

5. About this period the Roman republic, was again convulsed 
by domestic dissensions. The Italian states being frustrated in 
their aims of gainiug the freedom of Rome, by the intrigues of 
the senate, resolved to gain by force what they could not obtain 
as a favour. This gave rise to the Social War, which continued 
to rage for several years, and is said to have involved the destruc- 
tion of three hundred thousand men. It was finally terminated 
by granting the rights of citizenship to all who should lay donw 
their arms and return to their allegiance. 

6. This destructive war being concluded, the Romans next 
turned their arms against Mithridaies, king of Pontus, the most 
powerful monarch of the East, who caused eighty thousand Ro- 
mans, who dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor, to be massacred in 
one day. In this celebrated contest, styled the Mithridatic war, 
the Roman generals, Sylla, Lucullus, and Pompey, successively 
bore a distinguished part. The chief command in the war against 
Mithridates was first given to Sylla, a man of great talents and 
an able general ; but Marius, who had been distinguished for his 
warlike genius and exploits for nearly half a century, now in the 
seventieth year of his age, had the address to get the command 
of the army transferred from Sylla to himself. 

7. Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, finding his troops de 
voted to his interest, marched directly to Rome, which he entered 
as a place taken by storm, and proceeding to the senate, compelled 
that body to issue a decree declaring Marius to be a public 
enemy. Marius, in the mean time, fled to Africa, and Sylla, 
after some delay, entered upon the Mithridatic war. China, a 
partisan of Marius, having collected an army in his favor, re- 

4. What is said of Jugurtha? Who fel' a victim to his treachery? How did he 
incur the resentment of Rome? What was his fate?— 5. What is said of the Italian 
states? What did this give rise to ? How was it terminated ?— 6. Against whom dio 
the Romans next turn their arms? What generals took part in the Mithridatic war? 
VVnatis sai I of Marias ?— 7. On receiving this intelligence, what did Sylla do? 



ROME. 71 

called the veteran warrior, and they soon presented themselves 
at the gates of Rome. Marius refused to enter the city, alleging 
that having been banished by a public decree, it was necessary 
that another should authorize his return. But before, the form 
of annulling the sentence of his banishment was concluded, he 
entered the. city at. the head of his guards, and ordeied a general 
massacre of all who had ever been obnoxious to him. Many of 
those who had never offended him were put to death ; and at 
last, even his own officers could not approach him without terror. 
He next proceeded to abrogate all laws made by his rival, and 
associated himself in the consulship with Olnna. Thus having 
gratified his two favourite passions, vengeance and ambition, his 
bloody career was shortened by death, and shortly afterwards, 
Cinna was cut off by assassination. 

8. In the mean time, these accounts were, brought to Sylla, who 
was pursuing a victorious campaign against Mithridates ; but 
having concluded a peace with that monarch, he hastened to 
Rome to take vengeance on his enemies. Having entered the 
city, he caused a more horrible massacre than that which took 
place under Marius. He ordered eight thousand men, who sur- 
rendered themselves to him, to be put to death, while he, without 
being the least discomposed, harangued the senate. The day 
following, he proscribed forty senators and sixteen hundred 
knights; and after a short interval, forty senators more, with a 
much greater number of the most distinguished citizens of Rome. 
lie then caused himself to be proclaimed perpetual dictator, but 
after having held it for nearly three years, to the astonishment 
of all mankind, he resigned the dictatorship, and retired to the 
country, where he passed the remainder of his days in the society 
of licentious persons, and the occasional pursuit of literature. 
After his death, a magnificent monument was erected to him, 
with the following epitaph written by himself: — " I am Sytla, the 
Fortunate, who, in the course of my life, have surpassed both 
friends and enemies; the former in the good, and the latter in 
the evil I have done them." In the civil war between Marius 
and Sylla, one hundred and fifty thousand Roman citizens are 
said to have been sacrificed, including among them more than 
two hundred senators and persons of distinguished rank. 

9. While the commonwealth was yet distracted by the old dis- 
sensions, new calamities were added. Spartacus, a Thracian, 
who had been kept at Capua ae a gladiator, placing himself at the 
head of an army of slaves, laid waste the country, but was at 
length totally defeated by Crassus, with the loss of forty thou- 
sand men. A few years after this event, a conspiracy, which 
threatened the destruction of Rome, was headed by Catiline, a 
ir,an of courage and talents, but of ruined fortune, and of the 
most profligate character. A plan was concerted for a simulta 

Whai did Cinna do in favour cf Marius ? What did Marius refuse ? Having en- 
tered the city, wnat did he order ? What did he next do .'—8. What did Sylla do on 
entering- the city? What did he cause to be proclaimed? What was the epitaph 
written by himself? How many citizens perished in die civil war? — 9. Want is re- 
lated of Spartacus 7 Wnat took place after this event '' What plan was formed ? By 
whom was it detected ? 



72 ROME. 

neous insurrection throughout Italy ; that Rome should be fired 
in different places at once, and that in the general confusion, 
Catiline, at the head of an army, should enter the city and mas- 
sacre all the senators. The plot was fortunately detected and 
suppressed by the vigilance and energy of Cicero, the great Ro- 
man orator, who was consul at the time. Catiline, ai the head 
of an army of twelve thousand men, was defeated and slain in 
the battle. 



SECTION V. 

From the First Triumvirate to the Dissolution of the Common- 
wealth. A. C. 60 to 31. 

1. Pompey, who, on account of his military exploits, was sur- 
named the Great, having been appointed to conduct the Mithri- 
datic war, brought it to a successful termination. He defeated 
Mithridates and Tigranes, king of Armenia, reduced Syria, to- 
gether with Judea, to a Roman province. On his return to Rome, 
he was honored with a splendid triumph, which continued three 
days, during which the citizens gazed with astonishment on the 
spoils of eastern grandeur which preceded his chariot. 

2. Pompey, however, found a great rival in Crassus, who was 
the richest man in Rome, and courted popularity by his extensive 
patronage and great liberality. As they both aspired to the first 
place in the republic, a mutual jealousy existed between them. 
Such was the state of things, when Julius Ccesar, a young man, 
who had already distinguished himself by his military achieve- 
ments, had the address to affect a reconciliation between them, 
and to ingratiate himself into the favor of each. They agreed to 
appropriate to themselves the whole power of the state, and enter- 
ed into that famous league, styled the First Triumvirate. 

3. They immediately proceeded to divide the Roman provinces 
among themselves. Pompey, who had remained at Rome, re- 
ceived Spain and Africa; Syria fell to the lot of Crassus, and 
Ccesar chose Gaul for his portion, and as soon as time permitted, 
proceeded to take possession of his province. Crassus, in a war 
with the Parthians, was defeated, and slain, leaving the empire to 
nis two colleagues. The brilliant career of victory which attended 
the arms of Ccesar, in Gaul, his high military reputation, and in- 
creasing popularity, did not fail to awaken a spirit of jealousy in 
the breast of Pompey. Caesar, desirous of trying whether his 
rival would promote or oppose his pretensions, applied to the se- 
nate for a continuation of his authority, which was about to expire. 
That body, being devoted to the interests of Pompey, denied his 
request and finally ordered him to lay down his government, and 
disband nis forces, within a limited time, under ihe penalty ot 
being considered an enemy to the commonwealth. 

1 What w said of Pompey? How was he honoured on his return to Worn*'. ? 1. In 
whom did Pompey rind a rival ? Who effected a reconciliation between them . 
Wlr.il did they sisree to d >?-<. VVIi"re did Pomp*v rerinin? WIi u f-H t" tlw lot 
3i Crassus? Wliai (lit CjEsar choose i WIi it happened to (Jiassus? What was thu 
efJVct of Cajsar's career of victory ? What is said of Caesar? 



ROME. 73 

4. This hasty measure determined the course ol Ctfsar. He 
now resolved to suppori his claim by force of arms, and finding 
his troops devoted to his interest, he immediately commenced his 
march towards Italy. Having crossed the Alps, he halted at 
Ravenna, and wrote again to the seriate, offering to resign all 
command, if Pompey would follow his example; but that body 
refused to listen to his demand. Proceeding on his march, ho 
soon arrived on the banks of the Rubicon, a small river separating 
Italy from Cisalpine Gaul, and forming the limits of his command 
The Romans had always been taught to consider this river as the 
sacred boundary of their domestic empire; Caesar, therefore, 
when arrived on the banks of this famous stream, stopped short, 
as if impressed with the greatness of his enterprise, and its fearful 
consequences; he pondered for some time in fixed melancholy, 
looking upon the river, and then observed to Pollio, one of his 
generals, " If I pass this river, what miseries shall I bring upon 
my country; and if I now stop short, I am undone." Thus say- 
ing, lie exclaimed, "The die is cast;" and putting spurs to his 
norse, he plunged into the stream, followed by his troops. 

5. The news of Cfssar^s movement excited the utmost conster 
nation at Rome. Pompey, who had boasted that he could raise 
an army by stamping his foot upon the ground, finding himself 
unable to resist Cassar in Rome, where he had many partisans, 
led his forces to Capua, where he had a few legions, thence he 
proceeded to Brundusium, and finally passed over to Dyrrachium, 
in Macedonia. In his retreat, he was followed by the consuls and 
the greater part of the senators; among them was the famous C«/o, 
and Cicero, the orator. 

6. Csesar, va the mean time, having made himself master of all 
Italy in the space of sixty days, marched to Rome, entered the 
city in triumph, amidst the acclamations of the citizens, seized the 
public treasury, and possessed himself of the supreme authority 
On every occasion, he manifested the greatest liberality and 
clemency ; he said that he had entered Italy, not to injure, but to 
restore the liberties of Rome. After a stay of only a few days, 
he proceeded to Spain, where he defeated Pompey^s^ lieutenant, 
made himself master of the whole country, and again returned 
victorious to Rome. The citizens received him with fresh demon- 
strations of joy, and created him consul and dictator, but the 
latter office he resigned, after he had held it eleven days. 

7. While Cscsar was thus employed, Pompey was equally assi- 
duous in making preparation to oppose him. All the monarchs 
of the east had declared in his favor, and sent him large supplies : 
his army was numerous, and his fleet consisted of five hundred 
vessels. Caesar, remaining only eleven days in Rome, led his 
forces in pursuit of Pompey. But before coming to any general 

4. "What d.d he now resolve? "When lie arrived on the banks of the Rubicon 
what is related of Coesar ? What did he say ? — 5. What is said of Pompey? Wherd 
did he proceed? By whom was be followed? — G. In the mean time what did Ca?sar 
do? What did he manifest? Where did he proceed ? What was lie created ?— 
7 While Caesar was thus employed, what is said of Pompey ? Before conifig to avy 
OntfigCMnenl, what did C;rsar do ' 

x 7 



74 ROME. 

engagement, he once more made an effort to bring his rival to an 
accommodation, offering to refer all to the senate and people of 
Rome ; this overture was rejected, on the ground that the people 
of Rome were too much in Cesar's interest. 

8. The two armies came in sight of each other near Dyrra* 
chium, where an engagement took place, which terminated in 
favor of Pompey, who afterwards led his forces to the plains of 
Pharsalia, where he determined to await the arrival of 'Caesar, and 
decide the fate of the empire by a single battle. This was what 
Csesar had long and ardently desired; and now, learning the 
resolution of Pompey, hastened to meet him. Every thing con- 
nected with the contest about to follow was calculated to excite 
the deepest interest ; the armies were composed of the bravest 
soldiers in the world, commanded by the two greatest generals 
of the age, and the prize contended for was nothing less than 
the Roman empire. Pompey's army consisted of upwards of 
fifty thousand men, while the forces of Caesar were less than half 
that number, yet under much better discipline. 

9. As the armies approached, the two generals went from ran* 
to rank, encouraging their men, animating their hopes, or lessen- 
ing their apprehensions. Pompey urged the justice of his cause, 
declaring that he was about to engage in the defence of liberty 
and his country. Caesar, on the other band, insisted on nothing 
so strongly to his soldiers as his frequent and unsuccessful en- 
deavors for peace; he spoke of the blood he was about to shed, 
with the deepest regret, and only pled the necessity which urged 
him to it. There was only so much space between the two armies 
as to give room for fighting. The signal for the battle was given ; 
Caesar's men rushed to the combat with their usual impetuosity ; 
the dreadful conflict had now raged with unabating fury, from 
early in the morning till noon, when the scales of victory turned 
in favor of Caesar, whose loss only amounted to two hundred men, 
while fifteen thousand of Pompey's troops were left dead upon 
the plain, and twenty-four thousand surrendered themselves pri- 
soners of war. 

10. Caesar, on this occasion, manifested his usual characteristic 
disposition of clemency and humanity. He set at liberty the sena- 
tors and Roman knights, and incorporated with his own army the 
greater number of the prisoners; and committed to the flames all 
Pompey's letters without reading them. When viewing the field 
strewed with his fallen countrymen, he seemed deeply affected 
at the melancholy spectacle, and was heard to say : " They would 
have it so." 

11. The situation of Pompey was deplorable in the extreme 
For thirty years he had been accustomed to victory, and ruled the 
councils of the commonwealth; a single day beheld him precipi- 
tated from the summit of power, a miserable fugitive. Escaping 

8. Where did a slight engagement take place ? "Where did Pompey lead his forces* 
What is said of Caesar? "What of tlie armies? — 9. As the armies approached, what 
was done ? What did Pompey urge? On what did Ca>sar insist? What was the 
issue of the brfttle ? What was the number of the slain?— 10. What is said of Ca?sar oo 
this occasion? On viewing the field what was he liea*d to say? — 11 What wa* 
die situation of Pompey ? 



ROME. 75 

from the field of battle, and wandering along the beautiful vale of 
Tempe, he finally found means of sailing to Lesbos, where he met 
his wife Cornelia. Their meeting was deeply affecting ; at the 
news of his reverse of fortune, she fainted; at length recovering, 
she ran through the city to the sea side. Ponipey received her 
without speaking a word, and for some time supported her in his 
arms in silent anguish. But time would not permit him long to 
indulge in grief. Accompanied by Cornelia, he sailed for Egypt 
with a few friends, to seek protection of Ptolemy, whose father 
he had befriended. Rut as he approached the shore, he was basely 
murdered while yet within sight of his wife, and his body thrown 
upon the sand. His freedman burnt the corpse and buried the 
ashes, over which was placed the following inscription : " He, 
whose merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a tomb/' 

12. In the meantime, Caesar lost no time in pursuing his rival 
to Egypt, but on his arrival there, the first news he received was 
the account of Pompey's unfortunate end; and shortly afterwards 
he was presented with the head and ring of the fallen general, 
but turning his face from the sight, he gave vent to his feelings in 
a flood of tears ; and shortly afterwards ordered a splendid monu 
ment to be erected to his memory. The throne of Egypt at this 
time, was disputed by Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cleo- 
patra ; but Caesar, captivated by the charms of the beautiful queen, 
decided the contest in her favor, and at length reduced Egypt to 
the dominion of Rome. Caesar, after this event, abandoned him- 
self to pleasure In the company of Cleopatra, but was soon called 
to suppress the revolt of Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, who 
had seized upon Colchis and Armenia. Caesar defeated him in a 
battle at Zela, with so much ease that in writing to the senate at 
Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his victory and suppression of 
the revolt in these words: I eni, vidi, vici : u 1 came, I saw, J 
conquered." 

13. Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Ccesar hastened 
to Rome, where his presence was much required by reason of the 
disorders occasioned by the bad administration of Antony, who 
governed the city during his absence; but tranquillity was soon 
restored. Caesar's stay at Rome was short, being called into 
Africa to oppose an army raised by the partisans of Pompey, under 
the command of Scipio and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Mau- 
ritania ; he, however, defeated their united forces in the battle of 
Thapsus. Upon this Cato, who was a rigid Stoic and stern repub- 
lican, fled to Utica, where he resolved to resist the power of 
C'sesar, but finding that all was lost, determined not to survive the 
Hhfirty of his country, and therefore killed himself in despair. 

14. At the conclusion of the war in Africa, Caesar returned to 
Rome, and celebrated a magnificent triumph, which lasted four 
days ; the first was for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for 

How did lie receive his wife? Where did he sail? What was his fate ? What in- 
scription was placed on his tomb?— 12. In the meantime what did Cresar do? What 
is said of the throne of Egypt at this time? Of Ccesar? After the battle of Zela, 
how did Cjcsar express the rapidity of his victory ?— 13. What was Caesar's next 
courst ? What called him into Africa? What is related of Cato ?— 14. At the cor> 
c'usuin (,f tlie war Tvhat did Caesar do? 



7G ROME. 

his victories in the East, and the fourth for his victory over Juba. 
lie distributed liberally rewards to his veteran soldiers and officers; 
the citizens also shared his bounty; after distributing a certain 
quantity of corn, oil and money, among them, lie entertained them 
at a public feast, at which twenty thousand tables were set, and 
treated them to a combat of gladiators. The senate and the 
people, intoxicated by the allurements of pleasure, seemed to vie 
with each other in their acts of servility and adulation towards the 
man who had deprived them of their liberty. lie was hailed as the 
father of his country, created perpetual dictator, received the appel- 
lation of emperor, and his person was declared sacred. 

15. Having restored order in Home, he again found himself 
obliged to go into Spain, where Labienus and the two sons of 
Pompey had raised an army against him ; but he completely de- 
feated them in an obstinate battle, fought on the plains of Munda. 
Ccesar, by this victory, having triumphed over all his enemies, de- 
voted the remainder of his life to the benefit of the commonwealth. 
As clemency was his favorite virtue, he readily pardoned all who 
had at any time bore arms against him ; without any distinction of 
party, he seemed only to consider the happiness and prosperity of 
the people ; he adorned the city with magnificent buildings ; rebuilt 
Carthage and Corinth, sending colonies to both these places: he 
corrected many abuses in the state, reformed the calendar, under- 
took to drain the Pontine marsh, and intended to cut through the 
isthmus of Peloponnesus. 

1G. But while he thus meditated projects beyond the limits of 
the longest life, a deep conspiracy was formed against him, em- 
bracing no less than sixty senators, among whom were Brutus and 
Cassius, whose lives had been spared by the conqueror after the 
battle of Pharsalia. It had been rumoured that a crown would be 
presented to him on the ides of March, namely, the fifteenth of that 
month : the conspirators therefore fixed upon that day for the exe- 
cution of their design. 

Accordingly, as soon as Ccesar had taken his seat in the senate- 
house, they assembled around him under the pretence of solicit- 
ing for the pardon of a certain individual who had been banished by 
Caesar's order, and assailed him with their daggers. He defended 
himself for some time with great vigor, until seeing Brutus, 
his friend, whom he tenderly loved, among the conspirators, 
he exclaimed, et tu Brute, " And you too, Brutus," then 
resigning himself to his fate and covering his face with his robe, 
he fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's 
statue. 

Thus perished Julius Ccesar, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, 
whose ruling passion was ambition, and whose redeeming virtue 
was clemency. \See particulars of his character in Biography.] 

How did he entertain the people ? How was he hailed ? &c.— 15. Why was he again 
obliged to go into Spain? Having triumphed over all his enemies, what did lie re- 
solve to do? Mention some of the acts he now performed. — 16. What was formed 
against him ? What had been rumoured ? What happened as Ccesar took his seat in 
the senate-house ? How did he defend himself 1 On seeing Brutus, what diu he say 1 
What was his age 1 



ROME. 77 

17 No sooner was the death of Caesar known, than the whole 
city was thrown into the utmost consternation. His bleeding 
corpse was exposed in the forum ; his friend, Mark Antony, pro- 
nounced over it a funeral oration, and by his eloquent appeals to 
the sympathy of the people, so inflamed their resentment against 
his murderers, that they were obliged to escape from the city. 

Mark Antony, who was a man of great military talents, but of 
a most profligate character; Lepidus, who Mas possessed of im- 
mense wealth ; and Octavius Cxsar, afterwards surnamed Augus- 
tus, who was Cresar's grand-nephew and adopted heir, formed 
the design of dividing among themselves the supreme authority 
and thus established the second Triumvirate, which produced the 
most dreadful calamities in the republic. 

18. They stipulated that all their enemies should be destroyed, 
each sacrificing his nearest friends to the vengeance of his col- 
leagues. Thus Antony consigned to death his uncle Lucius; 
Lepidus his brother Paulus ; and Octavius gave up his friend, 
the celebrated Cicero, to whom he was under the most binding 
obligation, in order to gratify the hatred of Antony. The illus- 
trious orator was assassinated in the sixty-fourth year of his age, 
by Fopillius Lanus, whose life he had saved in a capital case. 
Home was again deluged in the blood of her citizens; in the hor- 
rible proscription that followed, three hundred senators, with 
two thousand knights, besides many other persons of distinguished 
rank, were sacrificed. 

19. In the mean time, Brutus and Cassius, having retired into 
Thrace, collected an army of one hundred thousand men, and 
made the last and expiring effort to restore the commonwealth. 
Anthony and Octavius marched against them with an army supe- 
rior in number. The empire of the world again depended upon 
the issue of a single battle. The two armies met on the plains ot 
Philippi, and after a dreadful conflict, which lasted for two days, 
the death-blow was given to Roman liberty, by the total defeat 
of the republican army. Brutus and Cassius resolving not to 
survive the liberties of their country, avoided the vengeance of 
their enemies by a voluntary death. 

20. The power of the Triumviri being thus established upon 
the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of enjoying 
the honors to which they had aspired. Lepidus was shortly 
after deposed and banished. Antony went into Greece, and 
having made some stay at Athens, he passed into Asia. He pro- 
ceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attended by a crowd of sove- 
reigns, exacting contributions and giving away crowns with 
capricious insolence. He summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, 
to Tarsus, to answer to the charge of having aided the conspira- 
tors. She accordingly came, decked in all the emblems of the 
queen of love; her galley was covered with gold; the sails of 

17. What was done by Mark Antony? Who composed the second Triumvirate? 
- -13. What did they stipulate ? What was the fate of the illustrious crater? What 
-s said of Rome ? — 19 AVhat was done by Brutus and Cassius? By whom were they 
Opposed? Where diu the armies meet? What was the isssse of the battle? What 
was the fate of Brutus and Cassius?— £0. What was the fate of Lepidus? Where did 
Anto.iy go ? What is related of Cleopatra ? 

7* 



78 ROM 3. 

purple floating to the wind; the oars of silver swept to the sound 
of flutes and cymbals ; she reclined upon a couch spangled with 
stars of gold, and such ornaments as the poets usually ascribe to 
Venus. Antony, captivated by her charms, forgot to decide 
upon her cause, and giving up all the pursuits of ambition, aban 
(loned himself to pleasure in the company of the Egyptian queen. 
He lavished on her the provinces of the Roman empire ; and 
having on her account divorced his wife Octavia, the sister of 
Ins colleague, an open rupture took place between him and 
Octavius. 

21. The great battle of Actium decided the contest in favor 
of Octavius, who, by this victory, was left sole master of the 
empire. After this defeat, Antony put an end to his life by fall- 
ing on his sword ; and Cleopatra, to avoid being led captive to 
Rome to grace the triumph of Augustus, procured her own death 
by the poison of an asp. 



SECTION VI. 

Rome under the Emperors. The Caesars: .Augustus, Tiberius, 
Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otlw< Vitellius, Vespasian, 
Titus, and Domitian. A. C. 31, to £.. D. 96. 

1. By the death of Antony, Octavius, now styled Augushts, 
became sole master of the Roman empire. Having returned in 
triumph to Rome, he endeavored, by sumptuous feasts and mag 
nificent shows, to obliterate the impressions of his former cruelty 
and resolved to secure, by acts of clemency and benevolence, 
that throne, the foundation of which was laid in blood. Having 
established order in the state, Augustus found himself agitated 
by different inclinations, and considered for some time whether 
he should retain the imperial authority or restore the republic. 
By Jigrippa he was advised to pursue the latter course ; but fol- 
lowing the advice of Msecenas, he resolved to retain the sovereign 
authority. 

2. Augustus, in his administration, affected an appearance of 
great moderation and respect for the public rights, and having 
gained the affections of the people and his soldiers, he endea- 
vored by every means to render permanent their attachment. 
As a general, he was more fortunate than eminent; though the 
general character of his reign was pacific, still several wars were 
successfully carried on by his lieutenants; he seemed to aim at 
gaining a character by the arts of peace alone : he embellished 
the city, erected public buildings and pursued the policy of 
maintaining order and tranquillity in every portion of his vast 
dominions. During his reign, the temple of Janus was closed for 

What did he lavish on her? "What took place between him and Octavius? — 
21. What is said of the battle of Actium? What was the end of Antony and Cleo- 
patra ? 

1. Who no;/ became sole master of the empire? What did he endeavour lo do ? By 
what was he agitated? Whose advice did he follow? — 2. What Mid Augustus effect 
What is said of him as a general ? During his reign, wlat was closed ? 



ROME. 



79 



the first time since the commencement ol the second Punic war* 
and third time from the reign of Numa, 

Augustus having accompanied Tiberius in his march into 
Illyria, was taken dangerously ill, and on his return, died at 
Nolla, near Capua, in the seventy -sixth year of his age, after an 
illustrious reign of forty-four years. 

3. Augustus was possessed of eminent abilities, both as a war- 
rior and a statesman; but the cruelties and treachery exercised 
by him while a member of the triumvirate, have left an indelible 
stain upon his character, and rendered it doubtful whether the 
virtues which he manifested in after-life sprung rather from 
policy than from principle. The emperor and his chief minister, 
Maecenas, were both eminent patrons of learning and the arts; 
and the Augustan age of Roman literature has been justly ad- 
mired by all succeeding ages. Araon^ those who distinguished 
his reign were the celebrated poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid> 
with Livy, the historian. But the most memorable event which 
took place during the reign of Augustus, was the birth of our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which happened, according to 
the best authorities, in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, and 
four years before the period commonly assigned for the Chris- 
tian era. 

4. Augustus, previous to his death, had nominated Tiberius to 
succeed him in the empire. The new emperor, at the commence- 
ment of his reign, exhibited a show of moderation and clemency; 
but he soon threw otF the mask and appeared in his natural cha- 
racter, as a cruel and odious tyrant. The brilliant success of 
his nephew Germanicus, in Germany, excited the jealousy of 
Tiberius, who recalled him to Rome, and is supposed to have 
caused his deatli by poison. Having then taken into his confi- 
dence Sejanus, a Roman knight, who became the minister of his 
cruelty and pleasure, he retired to the island of Caprea?, and 
abandoned himself to the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus, 
•oow possessed of almost unlimited power, committed the most 
fearful cruelties against the citizens of Rome ;Nero and Drums, 
the sons of Germanicus, were starved to death in prison; Sabinus, 
Gall us, and other distinguished persons were executed upon 
slight pretences; but his career was of short duration; being ac 
bused of treason, he was suddenly precipitated from his elevation 
and executed by order of the senate; his body was afterwards 
dragged ignominiously through the streets. 

5. This event seemed only to increase the emperor's rage for 
cuielty; now weary of particular executions, he gave orders that 
all the accused should be put to death without further examina- 
tion. When one Carnulius had killed himself to avoid the tor- 
ture, "Ah," exclaimed Tiberius, "how has that man been able 

Where did he die? What wns his age, and lengtrTof his reign? — 3. What is said 
of the abii'ties of Augustus ? Of what was he patron ? Who were distinguished in 
his reign? "What was the most memorable event that took place during it?— 4. Whom 
did Augustus nominate? How did he commence his reign? What excited his jea- 
lousy? Whom did he take into his confidence ? What is said of Sejanus" What 
•was' his fate?— 5 What orders did the emperor give liow? What exclamation did 
he. make? 



80 ROME. 

to escape rne." He died in the seventy-eighth year of his age 
and twenty-second of his reign; his death was hastened either by 
strangling or poison. In the eighteenth year of this emperor's 
reign, Jesus Christ suffered death upon the cross. 

G. Tiberius adopted for successor, Caligula, who commenced 
his reign under the most favorable auspices, and his first acts 
were even beneficent and patriotic : but his subsequent conduct 
was marked by every species of human depravity. He assumed 
divine honors, and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to 
be offered to himself as a divinity. He took such delight in cru- 
elty, that he wished that all the Roman people had but one neck, 
that he might despatch them at a single blow. Happy for man- 
kind, his reign was of short duration; he was assassinated in the 
twenty-ninth year of his age and fourth of his reign, A. D. 41 

7. After the death of Caligula, his uncle Claudius, and grand- 
son of Mark Antony, was raised to the throne. He was a man 
of weak and timid character, and a slave to the most degrading 
vices. The only remarkable enterprise during his reign, was his 
expedition into Britain. Caractacus, the illustrious king of that 
island, after a brave resistance, was taken prisoner and carried 
captive to Rome. As he passed through the streets and observed 
the splendor of the city, he exclaimed, " How is it possible that 
men possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac- 
tacus in an humble cottage in Britain." 

Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in the fourteenth 
year of his reign and sixty-fourth of his age, in order to make 
room for Nero, her son by a former husband, A. D. 55. 

8. Nero, now in the seventeenth year of his age, began his 
reign with universal approbation; he was even so much inclined 
to clemency and forgiveness, that when obliged to sign a warrant 
for the execution of a criminal, he would exclaim, *' Would to 
heaven that I had never learned to write." He had received an 
excellent education under the philosopher Seneca, and while he 
followed the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, he governed 
with general applause. But as he advanced in age, every trace 
of virtue vanished with his increasing years. Abandoning the 
advice of his virtuous counsellors, he soon gave himself up to 
every species of depravity, and rendered his name proverbial in 
all succeeding ages, as a detestable tyrant. The first alarming 
instance of his cruelty, was the execution of his own mothsi 
Jigrippina. Among others who fell victims to his cruelty, were 
Seneca, the philosopher, Burrhus, the prefect of the pretorian 
guard, and Lucan, the poet. 

9. In his wild extravagance he caused the city of Rome to be 
set on fire, that it might exhibit the representation of the burning 
of Troy, and stood upon a high tower that he might enjoy the 

When did he die? What took place in the eighteenth year of his reign? — 6 By 
whom was he succeeded? What is said of him? What did he assume? Kow did 
he die ?— 7. Who was next raised to the throne? What was his character? Who 
wus led captive to Rome? What did he exclaim? What was the end of Claudius?— 
6. \\ ho succeeded him ? What is said of Nero ? By whom was he educated ? What 
v/as the first alarming instance of his cruelty 7 Who were some of the other victims 7 ~- 
8 What did he cause? 



R 



ROME. 8i 

scene. The conflagration continued for nine days, and a giehi 
art of the city was burnt to ashes. But in order to avert from 
mself the public odium of this action, he openly charged it upon 
the Christians, who had now become numerous at Rome, and 
published against them a violent persecution, during which the 
two illustrious apostles St. Peter and St. Paul suffered martyr 
dom; the former was crucified with his head downwards; the 
latter being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dying by the 
sword. Nero having rendered himself contemptible by his follies 
and crimes, was soon destined to finish his career by a tragical 
end. The army in Spain having declared against him, raised 
Galba to the throne; the unhappy tyrant, finding himself deserted 
by all and condemned by the senate, avoided falling into the 
hands of his enemies by a voluntary death, in the fourteenth year 
of his reign and thirty-second of his age. 

10. On the death of Nero, Galba was acknowledged emperor 
by the senate, as he had been previously declared by the legions 
under his command. He was a man of much prudence and vir- 
tue, and had acquired a high military reputation, but he was now 
in the seventy-second year of his age, and soon became unpopular 
with the army by his severity and parsimony. At length, finding 
himself unable to sustain the duties of the government alone, he 
adopted for his successor the virtuous Piso. This measure, 
however, gave rise to a revolt in the army headed by Otho, which 
terminated in the death both of the emperor and Piso, after a 
reign of seven months. Tacitus says of him, that " had he never 
ascended the throne, he would have been deemed by all capable 
of reigning." 

11. Otho was now declared emperor by the army; but in Vitel- 
lius he found a formidable rival, who now aspired to the imperial 
throne. Otho being defeated, slew himself, after a reign of ninety- 
five days. Upon this^ event, VitclHus was proclaimed emperor, 
but having rendered himself odious to the people by his profligacy 
and tyranny, he was assassinated before he had completed the 
first year of his reign; at the same time Vespasian, who was now 
at the head of the army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor by his 
troop. On the arrival of the newly elected emperor at Rome, he 
was received with universal joy He had risen from an humble 
origin to the highest station in the state; he was equally distin- 
guished for his affability, clemency, and firmness. He ornamented 
the city by erecting various edifices, built the amphitheatre or 
coliseum, cherished the arts, and was a patron of learned men, 
among whom were Joscphus, the Jewish historian, Quint ilian, 
the orator, and Pliny, the naturalist. 

12. The most memorable event of the reign of Vespasian was 
the destruction of Jerusalem by his son Titus; after a trcmcn- 

How long: did the conflagration last"; How did he avert the odium from himself? 
During the persecution, who suffered martyrdom ? What did Ihe army in Spain do 7 
What, was the. end of Nero? — 10. Who was now acknowledged by the senate? Wha< 
is said of Gulha? What did he adopt? What was his end ? What did Tacitus say 
of him ? — 11. Who was now dec Wed emperor ? What was his fate? Who succeed- 
ed ? What was ihe end of Vitellius? Who was next? From what had he risen.' 
Of what was he ths patron? — 12. What was the most memorable event of his reign? 



82 HOME. 

dous siege of six months, the city was taken and razed to the 
ground, verifying the predictions of-our divine Saviour, that " not 
a stone should remain upon a stone." According to Josephus, 
the number of the Jews that perished during the siege exceeded 
one million, and the captives amounted to almost a hundred 
thousand. Vespasian having reigned ten years, beloved by his -i 
subjects, died at Campania, in the seventieth year of his age, 
A. I). 79. 

13. The late emperor was succeeded by his son 7 y itt(s, who, on 
account of his amiable virtues, justice and humanity, obtained the 
appellation of the "Delight of mankind." Recollecting one 
evening, that he had done no act of beneficence during that day, 
he exclaimed, "My friends, I have lost a day." His reign is 
memorable for the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which over- 
whelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and caused the \\ 
death of Pliny, the naturalist, whose curiosity led him too near i 
the scene. Titus died in the third year of his reign, and in the j 
forty-first of his age; but strong suspicion was entertained that 
he was poisoned by his brother Domitian, who succeeded to the 
throne, A. D. 81. 

14. Domitian was another Nero in his character. He caused 
himself to be worshipped as a god; many of the most illustrious 
men of Rome fell victims to his cruelty. He banished the phi! >. 
sophers from the city, and raised a dreadful persecution again >t 
the Christians. He frequently shut himself up in his chambe. , 
and amused himself by catching flies and piercing them with a 
bodkin, hence his servant being asked if any one was with the ; . 
emperor, replied, " No, not even a fly." His reign was signal- 
ized by the success of the Roman arms in Britain, under the 
command of Agricola, a distinguished general who had been sent 
to the country by Vespasian, and conquered all the southern por- 
tion of the island. Domitian was assassinated at the instigation 
of his wife, in the fifteenth year of his reign, A. D. 96. He was 
the last of those emperors called the Twelve Cxsars; Julius 
Caesar, the dictator, being considered the first; although Augus 
tus was the first who was generally styled emperor. 



SECTION VII. 

From Nerva to Constantine the Great. From A. D. 96 to 30G. 

1. After the death of Domitian, Nerva was elected to the 
throne. He was a man distinguished for virtue and clemency, 
but did not possess sufficient energy to suppress the disorders of 
the empire ; and having adopted Trajan for his successor, he 
died after a short reign of sixteen months. 

What number of .Tows per; shed during the siege ? When did he die ?— 13. By whom 
was he succeeded? What is said of Titus? For what is Ins reign memorable? 
When did he die?— 14. What is said of Domitian, hi? successor? What instance is 
given of his cruelty ? By what was his reign signalized ? How did he die ? Of whom 
was he the last? . .,,.., 

I. Who was now elected to the throne ? What is said of him 7 j 



ROME. 83 

2. Trajan, a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one of the 
greatest ami most powerful of the Roman emperors ; he was 
equally distinguished for affability, clemency, and munificence, 
on presenting' the sword to the prefect of the pretorian guard, he 
made use of these remarkable words : " Make use of it for me, 
if I do my duty ; if not, use it against me." The senate con- 
ferred on him the title of Optimus, the Best, and that body was 
long accustomed to salute every newly elected emperor with this 
expression : " Reign fortunately as Augustus, and virtuously as 
Trajan." 

3. Trajan was one of the greatest generals of his age; he en- 
larged the boundaries of the empire, subdued the Parthians, 
brought under subjection Assyria, Arabia Felix and Mesopo 
tamia; and in commemoration of his victory over the Dacians, 
he erected a pillar at Rome, which bear3 his name, and which 
still remains as one of the most remarkable monuments of that 
city. 

He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his reign 
Pliny, the younger, Juvenal, and Plutarch flourished . Although 
this prince was much celebrated for his virtues, still his character 
has been tarnished by a want of equity with regard to the Chris- 
tians who were persecuted during his reign. He died of apoplexy, 
in the sixty-third year of his age, and tfie twentieth of his reign, 
A.D. 117. 

4. Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, his nephew, who, in some 
respects, was the most remarkable of the Roman emperors. His 
administration was generally equitable and beneficent; he was 
highly skilful in all the accomplishments of the age ; he composed 
with great beauty, both in prose and verse ; he pleaded at the 
bar, and was one of the best orators of his time. Deeming the 
limits of the empire too extensive, he abandoned the career of 
conquest, and devoted himself to the arts of peace. He spent 
thirteen years in visiting the provinces of the empire, and during 
his progress he reformed abuses, relieved his subjects from many 
burdens, and rebuilt various cities. While in Britain, he caused 
a turf wall to be erected across the island from Carlisle to New 
castle, in order to prevent the incursions of the Picts. 

5. He rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and changed its name to 
/Elia Capitolina. In consequence of an insurrection of the Jews, 
he sent against them a powerful army, which destroyed about one 
thousand of their towns, and nearly six hundred thousand of 
these unfortunate people ; he then banished all those who re- 
mained, and by a public decree, forbade them to return within 
view of their native soil. He passed several wise regulations, 
among which was a law prohibiting masters to kill their slaves, 
as had been before allowed, but ordained that they should be tried 
by the laws enacted against capital offences. Adrian having 

2. What is said of Trajan ? "What words did he make use of on presenting' the pre- 
fect of the guard ?— 3. What was Trajan? What did he erect ? Of what was he the 
patron ? What has tarnished his character ? When did he die? — 4. By whom was he 
succeeded? In what was he skilful ? What did he abandon ? In what did he spend 
thirteen years of his reign ? What did he do in Britain?— 5. What city did he r^buiid * 
What g<^ver ! ty did lie exercise against the Jews? 



84 ROME. 

adopted for his successor Titus Antoninus, died after a prosperous 
reign of twenty-two years, and in the sixty -third year of his age, 
A. D.138. 

6. Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, was eminently distinguished 
for his public and private virtues, although his reign was marked 
by (e\v striking events. He showed himself one of the most ex- 
cellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation. During 
ids reign, Sf. Justin, the martyr, wrote his Apology for the Chris- 
tians, and directed it to the emperor, the senate, and the people 
of Rome ; still many Christians continued to suffer for their faith. 
Having adopted Marcus JJurelius Antoninus for his successor, hi 
expired at Lorium, near Rome, in the twenty-third year of his 
reign, and in the seventieth of his age, A. D. 101. 

7. Marcus Aurelius was esteemed as a model of pagan virtue, 
and was greatly attached, both by nature and education, to the 
Stoic philosophy, which he exemplified in his life, as well as 
illustrated in his book, entitled ''Meditations." While engaged 
in a war with the Germans, his army experienced a remarkable 
deliverance, through the prayers of a Christian legion then serving 
under his command. The emperor, in a letter to the senate, after 
stating the distressed situation of his army, says: "I put up my 
fervent prayers to the gods for our relief; bat the gods were deaf. 
I knew 1 there were many Christians in the army. I called them 
around me and commanded them to address their God in oar be- 
half. No sooner had they fallen upon their knees to pray, than a 
copious and refreshing rain fell from the heavens. But while the 
rain was refreshing to us, it drove furiously against our enemies, 
like a tempest of hail, attended with vivid flashes of lightning 
and dreadful claps of thunder. Wherefore, since the prayers of 
these people are so powerful with their God, let us grant to the 
Christians fall liberty of professing themselves such, lest they employ 
their prayers against us. My will is that their religion be no longer 
considered a crime in them." 

8. The Christian soldiers who had saved the Roman army by 
Mieir prayers, were afterwards distinguished by the name ot the 
Thundering Legion. Notwithstanding the humane disposition 
of Aurelius, many Christians suffered during his reign, owing 
chiefly to the violence of Verus, his colleague m the empire. 
Among the most illustrious who received the crown of martyr- 
dom, were St. Justin and St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. 
Aurelius died in the nineteenth year ot his reign, and the ntty- 
ninth of his a^e ; he was the last of those styled the Jive good 
impewrs, A. D. 180. ., V , . , „ i 

9 Aurelius was succeeded by his degenerate son, Commoilus, 
whose whole feigfi was a tissue of folly, cruelty, and injustice ; 
but his crimes finally brought him to a tragical end; he was 

Whom did he adopt fir his successor? When did he die?— 6. What did Autoninus 
show him ,elf! \\ ho wrote an apd.igy f a the Christians! When and where dm he 
die ■<-!. What is said of Marcus Aurelius ? I n a war with the Germans, what chd he 
exp irienoe ! Can vmi relate, i.i suh fence, his letter t > the senate— S. What IS saiJ 
of the Civilian soldiers? Of the Christians during his reign? Who were the n>ost 
illustrious of the suffered ? At what age, and when did he cue ?-^9. What is saul ox 
Commodus l 



ROME. 85 

assassinated in the thirteenth year of his reign, and thirty-second 
of his age. Pertinax, a man of humble birth, who had risen by 
his merit, and was styled the " tennis-ball of fortune," on account 
of the various conditions through which he had passed, was pro- 
claimed emperor by the pretorian guards. But having given 
offence by his severity, in correcting abuses, he was put to death 
by the hands of the very soldiers who had raised him to the throne 
only three months before. 

10. The empire was now put up for sale by the soldiers, and 
purchased by Didius Jidiamis, for the sum of nine millions of 
dollars. But the new emperor only enjoyed the honours of roy- 
alty for the space of five months, being assassinated by the order 
of Septimus Serenes, who was proclaimed emperor in his stead. 
Severus having triumphed over his two competitors, Niger and 
Albinus, governed with great ability. Ke made an expedition 
into Britain, and built a stone wall extending from Solway Frith 
to the German Ocean, and nearly parallel with that of Adrian. 
He died at York, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and in the 
sixty-sixth of his affe, A. D. 211. 

11. Severus left the empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, 
but Caracalla resolving to govern alone, murdered his brother in 
his mother's arms. His tyranny and cruelty at length excited 
against him the resentment of Macrinus, the commander of his 
forces, who caused him to be assassinated, in the sixth year of his 
reign. Macrinus was immediately declared emperor in his place, 
bnt after a reign of fourteen months, was in his turn supplanted 
by Heliogabalus, by whose command he was put to death. Hello 
gabalus was only in the fourteenth year of his age when he suc- 
ceeded to the throne, yet he showed himself to be a monster of 
vice, extravagance and cruelty ; he was murdered by the soldiers, 
and his body thrown into the Tiber, after a short reign of four 
years, having in that short period married and divorced six 
wives. 

12. Alexander Severus, his cousin, who was chosen to succeed 
him, was a mild and amiable prince, whose excellent character 
shines with redoubled lustre when contrasted with those who 
preceded and followed him. His acquirements were equal to his 
virtues ; he excelled in music, painting, sculpture, and poetry. 
During an expedition against the Germans, who had made an 
irruption into the empire, he was murdered by a mutiny of his 
soldiers, in the fourteenth year of his reign, and twenty-ninth of 
his age, A. 1). 235. 

13. On the death of Alexander, Maximm* who had headed 
the mutiny against him, was elevated to the throne. Maxim in 
was the son of a herdsman of Thrace : he was no less remark 

What wus his end? By whom was he succeeded? What was th? fate of Pertmajf T 
-10. What was now done with the empire? By whom was it purcnased? What 
>ras his end? Who succeeded? Where and when did Severus die ? — 11. To whom 
i\i\ Ssvrfus leave the empire 1 What is related of Caracalla ? Wnat was his late? 
Who was declared emperor ? By whose command was he put to death, and who suc- 
ceeded ! What is said of Heliogabalus ? What was his end ? — 12. Who was phoseij 
to Bucce-d Iiiui ? What io said of Alexander Severus " How and when did he die?- 
13 Who "succeeded to the tr.rone 

8 



8G ROME. 

able for the symmetiy of his person and extraordinary strength 
than for his gigantic stature, being eight and a half feet in height? 
he was also distinguished for his military talents. Previous to 
his elevation, he was remarkable for nis simplicity, discipline and 
virtue ; but after his accession to the throne, he became a monster 
of cruelty, and seemed to sport »viththe terrors of mankind. He 
was finally assassinated by his soldiers, in the third year of his 
reign. 

14. The interval from the reign of Maximin, and that of Dio- 
cletian, was filled by sixteen reigns, which furnish little that is 
pleasing or interesting. Of all the emperors who successively 
occupied the throne during .that period of forty-six years, 
Claudius and Tacitus alone "died a natural death. The emperor 
Valerian, in a war with Sapor, king of Persia, was defeated and 
taken prisoner. The Persian monarch treated his captive with 
the greatest indignity and cruelty. He used him as a footstool 
for mounting his horse, and finally ordered him to be put to death, 
then caused him to be Hayed, and his skin to be paintea red, and 
suspended in one of the Persian temples, as a monument of dis- 
grace to the Romans. 

15. The reign of Aardian was distinguished for brilliant military 
achievements. He defeated the Goths, and repelled the incur- 
sions of the^ Germans; but his most renowned victory was that 
over Zenobia, the famous queen of Palmyra, who fell into his 
hands; her secretary, Longinus, the celebrated critic, was put 
to death by the order of the conqueror. On his return to Rome, 
Aurelian was honored with a most splendid triumph ; Zenobia 
was reserved to grace the scene, bound in chains of gold, and 
decked with a profusion of pearls and diamonds. 

16. Diocletian, who was the son of a Dalmatian slave, rose by 
his merit from the rank of a common soldier to that of an eminent 
commandery-and was finally elevated to the throne, on the death 
of Numerian, A. D. 284. 

Two years after his accession, he associated with himself, in 
government, his friend Maximin ; and in 292, they took two 
other colleagues, Galcrius and Constantius, each bearing the 
title of Cxsar. The empire was now divided into four pari*, 
under the government of two emperors and two Caesars, each 
nominally supreme, but in reality controlled by the superior 
talents of Diocletian. 

17. At this time happened the tenth and last persecution of 
the Christians, which continued for several years with so much 
violence, that the tyrants boasted that they had extinguished tho 
Christian name. 

Diocletian and Maximin, in the midst of their triumphs, sur 
prised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day 

For what was Maximin remarkable ? How did he die ?— 14. How many reigns be 
tween that of Maximin and Diocletian? What is related of the emperor Valerian J 
— 15. For what was the reign of Aurelian distinguished? What was his most re' 
nowned victory ? What is said of Zenobia ? — 16. What is said of Diocletian % Whom 
did he associate with himself in the government? How was the empire now divided 1 
—17. What happened at this time? How did Diocletian and Maximin surprise the 
world? Where did Diocletian retire? What is saia of Maximin? 



ROME. 87 

and both retiring into private station. A. D. 304. It is generally 
believed that they were compelled to take this step by Galcrius, 
who, together with Const antius, was immediately afterwards 
acknowledged emperor. Diocletian seems to have been content- 
ed with his lot; he retired to Salona, in his native country, Dal- 
matia, where he lived eight years, and amused himself in culti- 
vating a small garden. Maximin attempted several times, but in 
vain, to resume the sovereign power, which he had abdicated, and 
even to murder his son-in-law, Const anline ; but being detected, 
» he slew himself in despair. 



SECTION VIII. 

From the Accession of Constantine to the Extinction of the 
Western Empire. A. I). 306 to 476. 

1. Constantius died at York, in Britain, having previously 
appointed his son Constantine, surnamed the Great, his succes- 
sor; Constantine had several competitors for the crown; of 
these, Maxentius was the most formidable, who had made him- 
self master of Italy and Rome. As the emperor was on his 
march, at the head of his army, against his rival, lie saw in the 
heaven, after mid-day, a luminous cross, bearing this inscription 
in Greek, tv tovtu> vixu, Conquer by this. The circumstance is 
related by several historians of that period, particularly by Euse- 
bius, in his life of Constantine. In consequence of this vision, 
the emperor avowed himself the friend and supporter of Chris 
tianity; and caused a splendid banner, called the Labarum, to 
be carried before his army, bearing a representation of the cross 
he had seen in the heavens. He now prosecuted the war against 
Maxentius with redoubled energy. A final battle was fought on 
the banks of the Tiber, in which Constantine was victorious ; 
Maxentius himself perished in the river, A. D. 312. 

2. On the following day Constantine made a solemn entry into 
Rome, where he was received with universal joy and hailed as 
the deliverer of the empire. As a lasting monument of this 
event, a magnificent triumphal arch was built at the foot of 
Mount Palatine, whicn remains at the present time. He pub 
lished an edict in favor of Christianity, which he now openly 
embraced, and claims the honor of being enrolled as the first 
Christian emperor. He put an end to the persecution of the 
Christians, also to the combats of gladiators, and other barbarous 
exhibitions. His reign foims an important era in ecclesiastical 
history, as the Roman government now lent all its influence to 
support that religion which it had repeatedly attempted to ^destroy. 
His reign is memorable for the celebrated council of j\ t k<?, con- 
vened for the purpose of condemning the heresy of Anns, who 
denied the divinity of Christ. 

1. What had Constantine ? What is related of him as he mau.hed at the head of 
his army? In consequence of this vision, what did he do ? Where was a final battle 
fought?— 2. On the following .day, what, did Constantine do? "What did he publish^ 
YVhat does his reign form ? For what is it memorable 7 



8S ROME. 

3. But the most important event of his reign was the removal of 
the seat of the empire from. Rome to Byzantium, in Thrace* 
where he built a magnificent city, called from his own name, 
Constantinople. As the empire had long been verging to ruin, 
this measure is thought by many to have hastened its downfall. 
Constantine died at Nicomedia, after an illustrious reign of 
thirty-one years, and the sixty-third of his age, A. D. 337. The 
character of Constantine has been variously represented by dif- 
ferent writers. His greatest fault was his severity towards his 
son Crispus, a young prince of the most amiable character; the 
emperor being so far deceived by artful calumny as to believe 
him guilty of the most atrocious design, and in the first mo- 
ment of indignation caused him to be put to death. He has also 
been charged with a want of political sagacity in removing the 
seat of government. Still whatever may have been his faults, we 
must admire and esteem his eminent qualities. The splendor 
of his military, political, and religious achievements, has deserv 
edly gained for him the surname of Great, which posterity has 
conferred upon him. 

4. Constantine left the empire divided among his three sons, 
Constantine II., Constans and Constantius. In the space of 
a few years, the two former were slain, leaving Constantius, 
the youngest, sole master of the empire. His character was 
marked by weakness, jealousy, and cruelty. During his reign 
the empire was harassed and weakened by the inroads of the 
barbarians from the north, and the incursions of the Persians on 
the eastern provinces. Constantius died, after an unfortunate 
reign of twenty-four years, A. 1). 361. 

5. Constantius was succeeded by his cousin Julian, surnames 
the Apostate, on account of his having renounced Christianity, in 
which he had been educated, and relapsed into Paganism. He 
was a man possessed of considerable learning, of great military 
talents, but the slave of the most bigoted superstition. He re- 
stored the pagan worship, and attempted to suppress Christianity. 
With a design of falsifying the prediction of our Saviour, he 
undertook to re-assemble the Jews and to rebuild their temple; 
but his design is stated by a number of ancient writers to have 
been miraculously defeated by the eruption of fire-balls from the 
ground, which dislodged the stones, melted the iron instruments, 
and dispersed the workmen. Julian was slain in a war with the 
Persians, in the second year of his reign, and the thirty-second 
of his age, A. D. 363. 

6. Julian was succeeded by Jovian, who restcred the Christian 
religion and recalled St. Alhanasius, who had been banished by 
the order of Julian; but he died suddenly, after a mild and equi- 
table reign of seven months. 

Valentinian, who was chosen to succeed him, associated with 

3. "What was the most important event of his reign ? Where anil when did he die! 
What is said of his character ? — 4. How did Constantine leave the empire ? What 13 
said of Constantius ? When did he die? — 5. By whom was Constantius succeeded! 
What is said of Julian? What did he restore ? What did he undertake? What lfl 
said ofhis design ? I.Inw did he die?— G. \Y hat is said- »f Jovian ? Who wd9 choacn 
jo succeed him^ 



rome. oy 

himself in the empire his brother Valens, who governed the east- 
I ern provinces,; and from tins period the division of the empire 
into eastern and western became fixed and permanent. The 
barbarians continued to make inroads into different parts of the 
empire, and the Goths finally obtained a settlement in Thrace. 
The domestic administration of Valentinian was equitable and 
wise; his temper, however, was violent. On a certain occasion, 
alien transported with rage, he ruptured a blood-vessel, and ex- 
pired in a few hours, in the fifty-fourth year of his age, and in the 
•twelfth of his reign. 

7. In the east, Valens held the sceptre with a weak and ineffi- 
cient hand. Favoring the Arian heresy, he threw the provinces 
into confusion and contention, and at the same time exposed his 
dominions to the inroads of the barbarians. He was defeated and 
slain in an expedition against the Goths, in the fifteenth year of 
his reign. 

Grafian, the son and successor of Valentinian, associated w;ith 
himself Theodosius, afterwards surnamed the Great. The reign 
of this illustrious monarch was signalized by the complete triumph 
of Christianity; and the downfall of paganism throughout the 
Roman dominions. By his great military abilities he success- 
fully repelled the encroachments of the barbarians, and by his 
wise administration he strengthened in some measure the empire, 
which had been already hastening to its ruin. After an illustri- 
ous reign of eighteen years, he left his dominions to two sons, 
Honorius in the west, and Arcadius in the east, A. D. 395. 

8. Theodosius was the last monarch who presided over both 
divisions of the empire. By all the authors of that period, with 
the exception of Zosimus, a Pagan writer, he is represented as a 
model of every public and private virtue, and worthy of the imita- 
tion of all Christian princes. His inclinations were naturally 
violent; but if he committed any faulty contrary to his usual 
clemency and meekness, he soon repaired it in a manner worthy of 
his character. On one occasion the populace of Thessalonica, in 
a tumultuous insurrection, stoned their governor to death. Theo- 
dosius, on receiving intelligence of this outrage, in a moment of 
irritation, gave orders for the soldiery to be let^ loose on the in- 
habitants of the city for three hours; the commission was executed 
with so much fury, that seven thousand persons were put to the 
sword. No sooner was St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, in- 
formed of this awful deed, than he declared to the emperor that 
he could not admit him into the church until he had atoned, by a 
public penance, for the enormity of the massacre he had occa- 
sioned. Theodosius humbly submitted to the decision of thQ 
prelate, and remained excluded from the church for eight months. 

0. During the weak reign of Honorius and Arcadius the bar- 
barians made a successful irruption into the empire, and possessed 

What 5s said of the barbarians? How did Valentinian die? — 7. What is said of 
Valens? How did ho die ? Whom did Gratian associate with himself? To whom 
did Theodosius leave his dominions ? — 8. What is said of Theodoiius ? Of his incli- 
nations? On one occasion what is related of him? "What did St Ambrose do 7 -- 
9. What happened during the reigu of Honorius and Arcadiu6? 

8* 



90 home. 

themselves of several of the most fertile provinces. The Goths, 
under the famous Alaric, spread their devastations to the very 
walls of Constantinople, and filled all Greece with the terror of 
their arms. Alaric then penetrated into Italy at the head of a 
powerful army, but was defeated with great loss by the Romans 
under the command of Stilico. After the death of this general 
Alaric invaded Italy a second time, and having taken and pita 
laged several cities, he at length pitched his camp before the walls 
of Rome. This famous city, which had for ages been the mistress 
of the world, and had enriched herself by the spoils of vanquished 
nations, was now reduced to the greatest extremities by famine 
and pestilence. 

1 0. Rome was finally taken by Marie, who gave up the city to be 
plundered by his soldiers, with a charge to spill the blood of none 
but those whom they found in arms, and to spare all those who 
took refuge in the churches. The fearful devastation continued 
for six days, during which the fierce barbarians, notwithstanding 
the injunctions of the chieftain, indulged their cruelty and fero 
city without pity or restraint. Alaric now prepared to invade Si- 
cily and Africa, but death suddenly put an end to all his ambitious 
projects ; but the Goths having elected Ataulphus for their leader, 
took possession of the southern part of Gaul, and laid the founda- 
tion of their kingdom in Spain. _ 

11. A few years after the sacking of Rome by Alaric, the coun 
try was again devastated by the Huns, a barbarous people of Scy 
thian origin, under the command of Attila, their king, styled the 
scourge of God. Having overrun the eastern empire, he invaded 
Gaul with an army of five hundred thousand men ; but he was de- 
feated on the plains of Chalons, by the combined forces of the Ro- 
mans under iEtius and the Goths under Theodoric, with a loss of 
one hundred and sixty thousand men. The warlike spirit of Attila 
was checked by this defeat, but not subdued; placing himself 
again at the head of his army, he shortly afterwards invaded Italy, 
and having extended his ravages to the gates of Rome, compelled 
Valentinian III. to purchase a peace by the payment of immense 
sums of money, with his sister Iionoria in marriage. Attila died 
shortly after this event; and his body is said to have been buried, 
enclosed in three coffins, the first of gold, the second of silver, 
and the third of iron ; and the men who dug the grave were put 
to death, lest they should reveal the place of his burial. 

12. Every circumstance now seemed to hasten the downfall of 
the empire, which had been long on the verge of ruin. JEtivtQ 
t\\c only man capable of defending it against its numerous ene- 
mies, was slain by the hand of Valentinian himself, on a pretend- 
ed charge of conspiracy. 

Shortly after this event, Valentinian was assassinated in his 
turn, at the instigation of Petronius Maximus, who was pro- 

What is said of the Goths ? What did Alaric do a second time?— 10. What is said 
of Rome? How long- did the devastation continue? Wha* is said of Alaric ? — 11. By 
whom was the country next devastated ? With how lar^e an army did he invade 
Gaul ? Where and by whom was he defeated ? How did Valentinian pun base a 
oeace ? What is said o'f the body of Attila ?— 12 What is said of JEtius ? How d id Val 
entiaian die ? What was done by Eudoxia? 



ROME. 91 

claimed emperor in his stead, and the empress Eudoxia invited 
Gcnseric, king of the Vandals, to avenge the murder of her hus- 
band. He eagerly embraced the opportunity, landed in .Italy 
with a numerous army of Moors and Vandals, took the city of 
Rome, which he gave up to his soldiers to be pillaged for eleven 
days; and after having destroyed many of the monuments of art 
and literature which Alaric had spared, and enriched himself with 
the spoils of the city, he returned to Carthage. 

13. From the reign of Valentinian III. the Western empire 
dragged out a precarious existence under nine successive empe- 
rors, for the space of twenty-one years, until its final termination 
in 476, by the resignation of Romulus Augustus, the last of its 
emperors, to Odoacer, the chief of the Heruli, who assumed the 
title of king of Italy. Thus terminated the Roman empire in the 
West, twelve hundred and twenty-nine years after the building 
vf the city, and five hundred and seven years after the battle of 
Aciium. Such, observes Goldsmith, was the end of this mighty 
empire, which had conquered mankind by its arms, and instructed 
the world by its wisdom ; which had risen by temperance, and 
fell by luxury; which had been established by a spirit of patriot- 
ism and sunk to ruin when the empire had become so extensive 
that a Roman citizen was but an empty name. 



SECTION IX. 

Roman Antiquities. 

1 . The. politic?.! state or government among the Romans varied 
very much during the successive periods of its existence. It was at 
first a monarchy; it afterwards became a republic, with a prepon- 
derance of aristocratic power, which gradually gave way to the 
influence of the people. The republican form of government was 
overthrown by Julius Capsar, and finally destroyed by Augustus, 
when it became a despotic monarchy. 

2. The kin<p of Rome were not absolute or hereditary, but 
limited and elective. They could neither enact laws nor make 
war or peace, without the consent of the senate and people. They 
wore a white robe, adorned with stripes of purple or fringed with 
the same colour ; their crown was gold, and their sceptre was 
made of ivory. They sat in the curule chair, which was a chair 
pff state made of ivory ; and they were attended by twelve lictors, 
carrying fasces, which were a bundle of rods, with an axe bound 
in the middle of them. 

3. The senate at first consisted of one hundred members, but 
was afterwards increased to two hundred by Tarquin the Elder, 

What is said of Genseric? — 13. From the reign of "Valentin irm, wnat is said of the 
Western empire? When did the empire terminate? Who was the lust of the empe- 
rors ? I !o\v long had the Roman empire lasted ? What does Goldsmith observe ? 

1. What is said of tl e political state? What was it first? What did it become? 
By whom was the republican government overthrown? — 2 What is said of the kinga? 
What did they wear ? By whom were they attended?— 3. Of what did the Senate con- 
gist ? 



92 X ROME. 

and towards (he latter days of the republic, it consisted of one 
thousand. The senators were at first nominated by the king, but 
afterwards chosen by the consuls, and finally by the censors. 
They usually assembled three times a month, but oftener if spe- 
cial business required it. A decree passed by a majority of the 
senate and approved of by the tribunes of the people, was termed 
a serial us consultum. The senators were styled patres, or fa- 
thers, on account of thiir age, gravity, and paternal care of the 
state, and from them the patricians derived their designation. 
The magistrates of the Roman republic were elective, and pre- 
vious to their election they were called candidati or candidates, 
from the white robe which they wore while soliciting the votes* of 
the people. 

4. The consuls had the same badges as the kings, with the ex- 
ception of the crown; and their authority was nearly equal, ex- 
cept that it was limited to one year. In dangerous conjunctures, 
they were clothed with absolute power by the solemn decree, 
"that the consuls take care that the commonwealth sustain no 
harm." In order to be a candidate for the consulship, the person 
was required to be forty-three years of age. The prsetors were next 
in dignity to the consuls, and in their absence supplied their place ; 
it was their duty to preside at the assemblies of the people, and to 
convene the senate upon any emergency. 

5. The office of censor was esteemed more honorable than 
that of consul, though attended with less power. There were 
two censors, chosen every five years, and their most important 
duty was to take, every fifth year, the census of the people, after 
which they made a solemn lustration, or expiatory sacrifice in the 
Campus Martius, The tribunes were officers, created to protect 
the plebeians against the patricians. The ediles were officers 
whose duty it was to take care of the public edifices, baths, aque- 
ducts, roads, markets, &c. The questors were elected by the 
people to take care of the public revenue. They were of two or- 
ders; the military questors who accompanied the army, and took 
care of the payment of soldiers, and the provincial questors, who 
attended the consuls into the provinces and received the taxes 
and tribute. 

6. The. assemblies of the people, in order to elect their magis- 
trates, or to decide concerning war or peace, and the like, were 
called a comiiia ; of which there were three kinds, the cunata, 
centuriata, and the tributa. The comiiia curiata consisted of* an 
assembly of the resident Roman citizens, who were divided into 
thirty curias. jThe tomitia centuriata were the principal assembly 
of the people, in which they gave their votes according to the census. 
They elected, during these comiiia, the consuls, praetors, and cen- 
sors; important laws were enacted, and cases of high treason 

How often did they assemble ? "What was a decree termed ? What were senators 
called? — 4. What is said of the consuls? In dangerous conjunctures, with what were 
they clothed? What age was required? Who were next in dignity ? — 5. What is 
said of the office of censor? Who were the tribunes? AVho were the ediles? The 
questors? Of how many oiders were tliey ? — 6. What was the assemblies of tht 
people called? Of what' dm ttie comma curiata consist? What was done at the 
somUia centuriata? What was the comitia tributa? 



ROME. 93 

were tried; and they were held in the Campus Martius. The 
comitia tributa were an assembly in which the people voted in 
tribes, according to their regions and wards; and they were held 
to create inferior magistrates, to elect certain priests, &c. The 
comitia continued to be assembled for upwards of seven hun- 
dred years, until the time of Julius Caesar, who abridged that 
liberty, and shared with the people the right of creating the ma- 
gistrates; Augustus infringed still further on this right, and Ti- 
berius finally deprived the people altogether of the privilege of 
election. 

7. The priests among the Romans did not form a distinct 
order of the citizens, but were chosen from the most honorable 
men of the state. The ponti t fices, fifteen in number, were priests 
who judged all causes relating to religion, regulated the feasts, 
sacrifices- and all other sacred institutions. The pontifex maxi- 
mus, or high priest, was a person of great dignity and authority ; 
he held his office for life, and all other priests were subject to him. 
The augurs were fifteen in number, whose duty it was to foretell 
future events, to interpret dreams, oracles, prodigies, &c. The 
haruspices were priests, whose business it was to examine the 
beasts offered in sacrifice, and from them to divine the success of 
any enterprise, and to obtain omens of futurity. The quindceem 
viri, were fifteen priests who had the charge of the Sibylline books, 
which were three prophetic volumes, said to contain the fate of 
the Roman empire; they were procured from a woman of extra- 
ordinary appearance, during the reign of Tarquin the Proud. The 
Vestal Virgins were females, consecrated to the worship of Vesta. 

8. The gladiators were persons who fought with weapons in 
the public circus or amphitheatre, for the amusement of the peo 
pie. These combats were introduced about four hundred years 
after the foundation of the city, and became the most favorite 
entertainment. The combatants were at first composed of cap- 
tive slaves and condemned malefactors; but in the more degene- 
rate period of the empire, free-born citizens, and even senators 
engaged in this inhuman and disgraceful amusement, in which 
numbers were destroyed. After the triumph of Trajan over the 
Dacians, spectacles were exhibited for one hundred and twenty- 
three days, in which eleven thousand animals of different kinds 
were killed, and ten thousand gladiators fought. 

i). The toga and the tunica were the most distinguished part 
of the Roman dress. The toga, or gown, worn by the Roman 
citizen only, was loose and flowing, and covered the whole body; 
it had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful folds, which gave 
the wearer a majestic appearance. The toga virilis was assumed 
by young men at the age of seventeen years. The tunica, or 
tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came down below the 
knees and was fastened about the waist by a girdle. The dress 

How long did they continue to assemble ? — 7. What is said of the priests? Of the 
potitijices ? Who was the pontifex maximus? The augurs? The haruspices? The 
qumdeeemviri? The vestal virgins ? — 8. AVho were the gladiators ? When were the^o 
combats introduced? What is said of them after the triumph of Trajan?— 9 What 
was the toga? The toga virilis ? The tunica? 



94 ROME. 

of the women was similar to that of the men: their tunic, how- 
ever, was longer and furnished with sleeves; (hey wore jewels, 
bracelets, rings, and various other ornaments in great profusion. 
Hats and caps were worn by the Romans only on journeys, or 
the public games; in the city they usually went without any 
covering on the head. 

10. The principal meal among the Romans was their supper, 
which they took about four o'clock in the afternoon; their break- 
fast was not a regular meal, it was taken by each one separately 
and without order, and their dinner was only a slight repast. In 
the early ages, the diet of the Romans consisted chiefly of milk 
and vegetables, and they sat upright at the table on benches; but 
in the latter days of the republic, when riches were introduced 
by their conquests, luxury was carried to excess, and they then 
reclined at their meals on sumptuous couches. These couches 
were similar to the modern sofa, and generally calculated to hold 
three persons; they so reclined upon them that the head of the 
one was opposite the breast of the other, and in serving them • 
selves they used only one hand. 

11. Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the power 
of life and death over their children. The exposure of infants 
was at first somewhat frequent, but at length entirely ceased, 
Slaves constituted a large portion of the population of Rome 
Their lives were at the disposal of their masters. They were not 
only employed in domestic service, but also in various trades and 
manufactures. They were considered as mere property, and 
were publicly sold in the market-place; and if capitally convicted, 
their punishment was crucifixion. At the feasts of Saturn and at 
the Ides of August, the slaves were allowed great privileges, and 
masters at those periods waited on them at table. 

12. The system of education among the Romans, wlvch was in 
its highest state of improvement during the reign of Augustus, 
was much admired. The utmost attention was bestowed on the 
early formation of the mind and character. The Roman matrons 
themselves nursed their own children, and next to the care be- 
stowed on their morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems 
to have been given to their language. From the earliest dawn 
of reason, a regular course of discipline was pursued by some 
matron of the family, and as the children grew towards manhood, 
they were habituated to all the athletic exercises that could 
impart agility or grace, and fit them for the profession of arms. 
Eloquence and the military art were the surest road to prefer- 
ment. Oratory, which letl to the highest honors in the stale, 
was the favorite study at Rome, and was taught as a science in 
the public schools. Poetry among the Romans, as with most of 
other nations, appears to have been the earliest intellectual efforts. 
The names that adorn the Roman drama are those of Livhts 

"What is said of the dress of women? Of hats, &c.?— 10. What was the principal 
meal? What is said of breakfast? In the early ages, what was the diet of the Ro- 
mans? How did they sit at table? What is said of'these couches?— 11. What is said 
of fathers? Of infants? What is said of slaves?— 12. What is said of education! 
Of the Roman matrons? What was pursued? What is said of eloquence, &c? Of 
oratory ? Of poetry ? 



JEWISH HISTORY. 95 

Andromms, Enn'ws, Plautus and Csecilius. In epic {>oelry, 
Virgil has excelled all other poets of ancient times, with the 
exception of Homer. Philosophy was first taught at Home, about 
the cud of the third Punic war, and was introduced from Greece. 
The system of the Stoics was at first most generally received ; 
the philosophy of Aristotle was afterwards greatly cultivated; 
out with the introduction of luxury, the philosophy of Epicurus 
became fashionable. 



JEWISH HISTORY. 

SECTION I. 

The Early History of the Jews, until their deliverance from 
Egypt. 

1. The Jews, commonly called the people of God, derive their 
origin from Abraham, the son of Zerah, the tenth in lineal de- 
scent from Shem, the son of Noah. The call of Abraham is a 
remarkable event in his history, and took place 1921 years before 
the Christian era. Abraham intended to settle in Haran, but in 
obedience to the will of God he removed to the land of Canaan, 
which was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. After 
his arrival there, his first care was to erect an altar for the wor 
ship of God, who appeared to him and confirmed the promise, 
which he had before made, of giving the country to his children. 
When he had lived some time in Canaan, a famine compelled 
him to remove his family into Egypt, where he resided until the 
famine ceased, and then again returned. 

2. Shortly after this time, happened the remarkable visitation 
of the divine wrath on Sodom and several other cities. The 
crimes of these cities cried aloud to heaven for vengeance; ac 
cordingly three angels, in the form of young men, were sent to 
destroy them. Abraham having entertained the heavenly visitors 
in his tent, accompanied them on their way to Sodom, and ob- 
tained from them, that Lot and his family should be spared. Lot 
was therefore admonished to depart with his wife and his two 
daughters, and they were ordered not to look upon the city. But 
scarcely had he reached a place of safety, when Sodom and Go- 
morrah, with two other cities, were consumed by fire that fell 
from heaven, leaving the site on which they stood, and the coun- 
try in the vicinity, a lake, called at the present time, the Dead 
Sea, the water of which is clear and heavy, but extremely nau- 
seous and bitter to the. taste. When the noise of the falling fire 
was heard, Lot's wife, forgetful of the injunction of the angels, 

Mention some names that adorn the drama? What is said of Virgil? What is 
said of philosophy ? 

1. What is said of the Jews? When was the call of Abraham': Where did ha 
settle ? Where did he remove ? Where did he remove with his family 1—2. After this 
time, what happened ? What is said of Abraham ? Who was admonished to depart I 
What is the site on which it stood now called ? What is related of Lot's wife ? 



96 JEWISH HISTORY. 

looked back upon the city; but her curiosity was punished on the 
spot; she was changed into a pillar of salt, to serve as a warning 
to those who, at any time, cast back a wishful look on the sinful 
objects which they have once forsaken. 

3. Sarah, the wife of Abraham, when far advanced in years, 
brought him a son, who was called Isaac. When Isaac had grown 
up, God, to try the faith of Abraham, commanded him to oiler 
his son in sacrifice on a mountain which he should point out to 
him. The holy patriarch obeyed without hesitation, but at the 
moment when his hand was raised to strike the victim, an angel 
was sent to stop his arm, and to assure him that God was satisfied 
with the readiness of his obedience. Isaac was afterwards mar- 
ried to Rebecca, the mother of Esau and^Iacob. Jacob, by the 
command of the Lord, took the name Israel, hence his posterity 
were called Israelites, or children of Israel. 

4. Jacob had twelve sons, of whom Joseph was particularly 
loved by his father, and on that account hated by the rest of his I 
brothers. On a certain occasion, as they were tending their • 
flocks, at some distance from home, Joseph was sent by his father ■ 
to see how they conducted themselves ; they immediately seized 
and sold him as a slave to some Ishmaelite merchants, and told 
his father that he had been devoured by wild beasts. The mer- 
chants carried him into Egypt, and sold him to Potiphar, an 
officer of the court. Joseph served Potiphar with so much fidelity, 
that he soon committed to him the care of his household. The ! 
wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph to the • 
commission of a flagitious crime, but the virtuous youth rejected 
her proposals with disdain ; but she, incensed at this, maliciously 
accused him of an attempt against her honor. On this false ■ 
accusation Joseph was thrown into prison, where he languished 
for several years. 

5. At length Pharaoh, the kin" 1 of Egypt, had two dreams that ; 
greatly perplexed him, and could find no one in Egypt able to • 
interpret them. Finally he was informed of a Hebrew servant, , 
then in prison, who had wisely interpreted the dreams of two of 
his officers; this was Joseph, who, on being introduced to the i 
king, explained his dreams, and told him that they predicted an i 
abundant product of the earth for seven years, and afterwards a 
famine for the same space of time. Upon this he was not only 
released from prison, but appointed to administer the affairs ot 
Egypt under Pharaoh. 

6. During the famine which followed, all his brothers, with the 
exception of Benjamin, went into Egypt for the purpose of buy 
ing provisions. Joseph knew them, but he was unknown to them} 
he therefore asked them, as if strangers to him, from whence they 
had come, and whether they were spies. They answered him 
with profound respect, that they had come into Egypt with the 
honest intention of buying corn; that they were twelve brothers^ 

3. When Isaac had grown up, what did Ood command ? "What did the holy patriarch 
do? Whom did Isaac marry? — 4. How many sons had Jacob? On a certain occa- 
sion, what took place ? Where was Joseph carried? What is said of the wife o> 
Potiphar? What happened to Joseph? — 5. What is said of Pharaoh? Of what wai 
he informed? What did Joseph tell him ? — 0. During the famine, what took place' 
What did Joseph ask them ? 



JEWISH HISTORY. 9t 

that one of them no longer existed, and that the youngest, called 
Benjamin, was left at home with his father Jacob in Canaan. The 
name of Benjamin touched the inmost feeling of Joseph's breast; 
he therefore determined to have him brought into Egypt. For this 
pu» pose he seemed to give no credit to their words, and said, that 
to assure himself of the truth of their account, one of them should 
remain as a hostage, until their younger brother should be brought 
into Egypt. Therefore retaining Simeon, the rest were permitted 
to depart. 

7. Upon their return home, they informed their father of all 
that had passed, and particularly of the engagement they were 
under of taking Benjamin into Egypt, where Simeon was de- 
tained as a pledge of their promise. Nothing could exceed the 
grief of the aged father on receiving this intelligence; he be- 
moaned his misfortunes; he spoke of his children, and became 
inconsolable at the thought of parting with the last and dearest 
of his sons, Joseph, said he, is no more, Simeon is in chains, 
and must Benjamin, also, be taken from me? No, I will not 
consent ; to part with him would wring my very soul with grief, 
and carry my gray hairs in anguish to the grave. 

8. Jacob, however, at length consented to the departure of 
Benjamin, who accompanied his brothers on their return to Egypt. 
They were kindly received by Joseph, who finally made himself 
known to them in these words: "lam Joseph; does my father 
yet live r" Struck silent with amazement, they were for some 
time unable to reply. Joseph wept and tenderly embraced them 
all • but with greater feeling he threw himself upon the neck of 
Benjamin, and pressed him to his breast. He then told them to 
hasten to their father and let him know that his son Joseph was 
still alive, and to bring him down into Egypt. Jacob accordingly 
removed with all his family into Egypt, and Joseph assigned 
them a residence in the land of Goshen, a fertile district situated 
between the Nile and the Red Sea. 

9. Jacob lived seventeen years after his removal into Egypt. 
Upon being informed of his illness^ Joseph, with filial piety, 
hastened to pay the last duties of affection to his dying father. 
The venerable patriarch raised himself in his bed at his son's 
approach, and spoke to him of the inheritance which God had 
promised to his seed in the land of Canaan, where he desired his 
remains to be removed after his death. He called his other sons 
around his bed, and gave to each a special blessing : the most 
memorable was that which he spoke of Judah, in which he ex- 
pressly declared, that from his race the Messiah, the expected of 
ail nations, should be born, and that this great event should take 
place at or near the time when the sovereign power should be 
entirely taken away from the Jewish nation. Jacob died in the 
one hundred and forty-seventh year of his age. 

How did the name of nenjamin affect Joseph ? What method did he adopt to brin.9 
fiim into Egypt? — 7. What did they inform their father? What is said of the aged 
father? What did lie say? — 8. To what did Jacob at length consent? In what words 
did Joseph make himself known? What did he tell them? — 9. How long did Jacob 
live? What is said of Joseph ? What did the patriarch do? What did he say of the 
Messiah? 





98 JEWISH HISTORY. 

10. Joseph, after the death of his father, continued to rule over 
Egypt until his death, which occurred about the year 1035 A. C. 
In less than forty years after this event, a total change took place 
in the affairs ot Egypt ; a new king occupied the throne who 
knew not Joseph, and forgetful of his administration, cruelly op- 
pressed the Hebrew people. To check their increase and pros- 
perity, the most rigorous measures were adopted; their lives 
were embittered by hard service at public works, and all their 
male children were ordered to be thrown into the river Nile. 

11. After much suffering, God raised up a deliverer of his 
chosen people, who should rescue them from a state of cruel ser- 
vitude, and bring them out of the land of bondage. This de 
liverer was Moses, the most distinguished personage of ancient 
times. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman decree, Moses was 
exposed by his mother on the banks of the Nile, and was found 
by the king's daughter, who compassionately adopted him and 
thus saved his life. Before the obdurate heart of Pharaoh could 
be induced to consent to the departure of the Hebrews, a number 
of extraordinary and supernatural events took place, called the 
ten plagues of Egypt. The first of these plagues was the change 
of the waters of the Nile, and of all the wells of Egypt, into 
blood ; and by the last the whole land was covered with darkness 
for three days. 

12. Pharaoh at length consented to allow Moses to conduct the 
Israelites into the wilderness tor three days, to perform their re- 
ligious duties. At the expiration of this time, rinding that they 
did not return, he "put himself at the head of his army and re- 
solved to pursue them. Moses retreated until he came to the 
shore of the Red Sea, where, seeing the hosts of Egypt pressing 
forward, he extended his arm over the profound abyss, as God 
commanded him; the waters suddenly divided and opened a 
passage to the opposite shore. The Israelites immediately entered 
the dry hollow of the deep, amazed at the watery bounds that 
stood suspended as walls upon their right and on their left. 

13. Pharaoh, insensible of the miracle, and thinking the pas- 
sage as safe and as free for him as the Israelites, entered precipi- 
tately after them, with all his army, and advanced to the middle 
of the abyss before he became sensible of his danger. By this 
time, Moses, who, with all his followers, had reached the other 
shore, stretched forth his hand again over the sea, and called back 
the waters to their natural state. Shut up within the bosom of f 
the deep, the whole Egyptian host perished, with the loss of their 
chariots and arms. 

14. The Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, wan 
dored through the desert for forty years, during which time thev 
received many signal proofs of the divine favor in their regard. 

10. What is now said of Joseph? Of the new king? To check their increase what 
was adopted ? — 11. What did God raise up? Who was this deliverer? What is re- 
lated of Moses? What was the first and last plague of Egypt? — 12. To what did 
Pharaoh at length consent? At the expiration of this time, what did he do ? What 
did Moses do? Where did the Israelites enter? — 13. What ^s related of Pharaoh? 
When Moses hadieached the other shore, what did he do? What happened to the I 
Egyptian host?— 14. What is said of ihe Israelites? 



JEWISH HISTORY. 99 

They were supplied with food by manna, which fell regularly 
every morning, except on the Sabbath. On one occasion, when 
(hey were greatly in want of water, Moses supplied them with 
that element, by striking a rock with his rod and causing a stream 
to issue from it. In the second year after their deliverance from 
Egypt, Moses numbered the children of Israel, and found them 
to amount to six hundred and three thousand five hundred and 
fifty men, besides women and children. When they arrived at 
Mount Sinai^ God gave them his divine law, amidst thunder and 
lightning. Moses was the only person allowed to ascend the 
inountain, and during his absence the ungrateful Israelites fell 
into idolatry, and worshipped a golden calf. 

15. Moses, after forty days and nights spent in his secret inter- 
view, received two tables of stone from God, who had engraved 
upon them, as the Scripture expresses it, with his own hand, the 
ten commands. In these ten fundamental precepts are contained 
an admirable summary of our various duties to God and to man. 
We are directed to adore one only Deity, the author of all bless- 
ings ; we are commanded to reverence his holy name, and are 
reminded of the dreadful vengeance denounced against those who 
shall transfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is 
due only to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred 
obligations, we are commanded to abstain from work one day in 
each week, that it may be more immediately devoted to the duties 
of religion. Four of the precepts of the Mosaic code compre- 
hend the principles of universal jurisprudence. Thou shalt not 
kill : Thou shalt not commit adultery : Thou shalt not steal : 
Thou shalt not bear false witness. They have formed the basis 
of criminal law in all civilized nations, and are essential to the 
good order of society. 

16. When Moses descended from the mountain, and found the 
people worshipping a golden calf, transported with holy indigna- 
tion at the sight, he threw down the tables of the law, and broke 
them into pieces : then seizing "the idol, he immediately broke it 
down and cast it into the fire; and placing himself at the en- 
trance of the camp, he proclaimed aloud that all those who still 
retained a sense of their duty to God, should come forth and join 
him. The faithful tribe of Levi, having arranged themselves by 
his side, Moses ordered them to march through the camp and put 
to death all who came in their way. The order was immediately 
executed, and above twenty thousand men were put to death, to 
expiate the guilt of those who remained. 

17. Moses, by the express command of God, having prepared 
two tables of stone, like those he had broken, went again to the 
summit of Sinai, where he received the same words engraved on 



Wish what were they supplied ? On one occasion, what is related ? In the second 
year, what was the number found to be ? At Mount Sinai, what was given ? \Vhat 
is sii.l of Moses ? — 15. What did Moses receive? In these, what are contained? 
What are we directed. &c? To prevent, &c, what are we commanded? What do 
four of these precepts comprehend? "What are these four precepts? — 16. What is 
n hv said of Moses? What did he do with the idol? What did Moses order theral 
h'^ many were pr. to death?— 17. What did Moses new do? 



100 JEWISH HISTORY. 

thorn which had boon engraved on (ne first. When he came 
down from the mountain and approached the camp, the Israelites 
perceived a bright halo of glory which encircled his countenance, 
and made them afraid to approach him. Being told the cause of 
their dread, he covered his face with a veil, which he afterwards 
continued to wear. Moses then caused the tabernacle to be built, 
which was a quadrangular tent, thirty cubits in length, and nine 
in breadth. The inside of the tabernacle was hung with ricbly 
embroidered tapestry, and was divided into two parts by four 
pillars, before which was suspended a veil of the most exquisite 
needlework, variegated with the brightest colouring of purple 
and scarlet. The apartment enclosed behind the veil was called 
the holy of holies, and the space between the veil and the en- 
trance was called the sanctuary. The tabernacle being finished, 
the ark of the covenant was made. It measured two cubits and 
a half in length, one and a half in breadth, and the same in 
height; it was made of incorruptible wood, plated within and 
without with the purest gold, and covered with a lid, also of solid 
gold, which was called the mercy-seat. On the mercy-seat were 
placed two chertbs face to face, with their wings extended, so as 
to cover the ark. The ark, when finished, was placed in the 
tabernacle. 

18. About this time Moses sent twelve men to survey the land of 
Canaan ; all, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, gave an 
unfavorable report, which caused the people to murmur. In con- 
sequence of this offence, God condemned all those who were twenty 
years of age, when they left Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except 
Joshua and Caleb. . 

The earth opened and swallowed Korah, Dathan and Miram, 
tor heading a revolt against Moses; at the same time fire descended 
and destroyed two hundred and iifty of those who had partici- 
pated in their offence. Moses at length died at the age of one 
hundred and twenty years, on mount Ncbo, in the land of Moab, 
having first taken a view of the promised land, which he was not 
permitted to enter. After the death of Moses, Joshua w r as ac- 
knowledged his successor in the supreme temporal command, 
who, having conquered the various nations that opposed him, and 
having surmounted innumerable obstacles, finally conducted the 
Israelites into the land of promise. 

When he came down, what is related of him? What did he cause to be built* 
Describe the tabernacle? The tabernacle being finished, what was made? What 
3id it measure? On the mercy-seat what was placed ?— 18. At this lime, what was 
lone? What was their report? In consequence of this, to wnat were they con- 
demr.ed? What is related of Koran? At what age did Moies die, »nd where I 
After the death of Moses, what did Joshua, hi" s lcceissor, do? 






JEWISH HISTORY. 101 



SECTION II. 

The government of the Judges ; the regal government ; the resto m 
ration of the Jews from captivity, 

1. The period during the government of the judges was ex- 
tremely turbulent, and marked by an almost uninterrupted series 
of hostilities with their warlike neighbours. We are not informed 
for a certainty as to the manner of choosing the judges, and what 
was the extent of their power. They appear to have been mili- 
tary chiefs for the command of the army, and some of them 
acquired a distinguished fame by their successful expeditions 
against the enemies of their country. The most distinguished of 
those who filled the office of judge were the two last, Eli and 
Samuel. Eli, who united in his person the duties of judge with, 
the functions of high-priest, appears to have beeu incapable of 
discharging the obligations dependent on these two important 
offices. The people fell into idolatry, and, in punishment of their 
crimes, were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. 
In a great battle with "the Philistines, the Hebrew army was 
defeated with dreadful slaughter, the two sons of Eli were slain, 
and the ark of the covenant fell into the hands of the enemy. 
At the news of this disaster, the venerable high-priest, Eli, now 
sightless with age, fell backward from his seat and expired on the 
spot. 

2. The next and last judge of the Hebrews, was Samuel the 
prophet, A. C. 1112. He brought back the people to a sense of 
their duty, and soon restored the fallen glory of Israel by a sig- 
nal victory over the Philistines. Peace was restored, public 
virtue again flourished, and Samuel for twenty years governed 
the Hebrew nation with wisdom and prudence. When age had 
rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he 
united his two sons with him in the administration of the govern- 
ment. But the conduct of Samuel's sons, who did not inherit 
I heir father's virtue, gave offence to the Israelites, and they 
desired to be governed by a king, like the other nations around 
them. Samuel at length yielded to their request, and privately 
anointed Said, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin, as king 
of Israel. Samuel then assembled the tribes, that they might 
elect a person to rule over them, and having cast their votes, the 
lot fell upon the very person of Saul. 

3. This event confirmed what had already passed in private, 
and indisputably proves that God presides over and directs the 
fcffairs of man. The name of Saul was immediately echoed 
through the tribes; and on being presented before them, the 
whole multitude exclaimed, God save the king. This event took 

1. What was the perod during the government of llie judges? What do they sp- 
pear to have been ? Who were the most distinguished ? What is said of Eli ? ' Into 
what did the people fall? In a great battle, what took place? At the news of this 
disaster, what happened ?— '2. Who was the last judge? What is said of him ? Why 
di'l the Israelites desire to bo governed by a king? Who was the first k^ng ? — 
3 What is said ol this event? What did ihe multitude exclaim? 

9* 



102 JEWISH HISTORY. 

place aft et the government of the judges had subsided, with 
.some intermission, for three hundred and fifty-six years from the 
time of Joshua, A. C. 1091. 

> 4. The beginning of the reign of Saul was auspicious, and dis- 
{anguished by a complete victory over the Philistines, Amonites, 
and other nations. He was at length ordered by Almighty God- 
through the prophet Samuel, to destroy the Amalekites, an idola- 
trous and perfidious nation, the ever-declared enemies of the 
Hebrew people; and not to reserve the least thing that belonged 
to them. In obedience to this order, Saul put himself at the head 
of his army and marched against that devoted people ; but far 
from complying with the letter of his instructions, he spared the 
Life of their king, reserved the choicest of the flocks, and took to 
himself the most precious of the spoils. On account of this and 
other acts of disobedience, Samuel, on the part cf God, declared 
to Saul that the kingdom of Israel should be taken from him and 
transferred to another. Accordingly Samuel, by the divine direc 
tion, privately anointed David king, and appointed him to suc- 
ceed to the throne, which Saul had forfeited by his crimes. The 
whole reign of Saul was a continued series of foreign or domestic 
troubles ; being at length defeated in a war with the Philistines, lie 
killed himself by falling upon his own sword, after a reign of forty 
years, A. C. 1051. 

5. David, who had been anointed king by Samuel before the 
death of Saul, and held his title by divine appointment, was there- 
fore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. He found, 
however, a powerful rival in lshbosheth,the son of Saul, who found- 
ed his claim on the right of descent, and was supported by many 
of the tribes. A civil war ensued, which continued for seven 
years, and was finally terminated by the death of Ishbosheth; after 
this event all the tribes submitted to David, and the crown be- 
came hereditary in his family. 

6. The reign of David was illustrious and interesting. He 
enlarged the bounds of his kingdom, took Jerusalem, which he 
made the capital of his dominions, and enriched himself and his 
subjects by the spoils of his enemies. He revived among the 
people an attachment for religion, by the institution of ^ solemn 
ceremonies; and he introduced a taste for the arts by inviting 
into the country able artists, for the completion of the magnificent 
edifices which he erected. The latter part of his reign was imbit 
tered by severe affliction. The kingdom was ravaged by pesti- 
lence, famine, and disastrous wars. His mind w r as harassed by 
domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were disobedient and 
wicked. His favorite son, Absalom, excited a rebellion against 
his father, with a design of dethroning him; but he was defeated 
and slain. David caused his son Solomon to be crowned in the 
year 1011, before the Christian era, and died the following year, 

When did this take place? — 4. "What is said of the beginning of the reign of Saul! 
What was he ordered? What did he do? On account of tins, what did Samuel do? 
Whom did lie anoint as king? How did Saul die ? — 5. What is said of David? What 
did he find ? What ensued ?— G. What is said of the reign of David ? What did he do? 
What is said of the latter part of his reign? Of his favorite son Ahsa?om? 



JEWISH HISTORY 103 

having reigned seven years and a half over Judah, and thirty- 
three years over all Israel. 

7. During the reign of Solo?no?i,the kingdom of Israel rose to 
a higher degree of prosperity, felicity, and glory, than it enjoyed 
at any former or subsequent period. He directed the councils of 
all the petty states situated between the Euphrates and Mediter- 
ranean, and held the balance of power between the two great 
monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Commerce was in a high 
(tegree flourishing; the vessels of Israel, under the direction of 
Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which is supposed 
to be a district of Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Africa. By 
these lucrative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, 
which David had already enriched by the spoils of war. But 
this prosperity began at length to decline. Solomon, elated by 
the uniform prosperity which attended his reign, set no bounds to 
his magnificence and luxury, and in order to support his profuse 
expenditure, laid heavy taxes upon the people; this finally alien- 
ated the affections of his subjects, and towards the close of his 
reign gave rise to a powerful faction, headed by a young man 
called Jeroboam. 

8. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon was the 
building of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, which was com- 
pleted in the space of seven years. The plan had been formed 
oy David, and materials, workmen, and money provided for its 
erection. It was probably the most superb and costly fabric of 
ancient times. 

The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs 
r*nd Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or 
collector; they abound with precepts and maxims applicable to 
every state and condition of life. But notwithstanding the supe- 
rior wisdom for which Solomon has been so justly celebrated, he 
appears to have been immersed in sensual pleasures. He married 
no fewer than a thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the 
rank and title of queens. The influence of these women, chosen 
for the most part from idolatrous nations, led him into effeminacy 
and neglect of his important duties to God and his people; and 
their influence and superstitions at length drew him into idola- 
try. He died after an illustrious reign of forty years, leaving the 
world in doubt whether his memory be more worthy of praise oi 
censure, whether he died a friend or enemy of his Creator. A. C 
971. 

9. With Solomon expired the grandeur and tranquillity of the 
Hebrews. Upon the accession of his sdn Rehoboam to the throne, 
the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and termi- 
nated in the revolt of the ten tribes from their allegiance to the 
house of David, leaving only the two tribes of Judah and Benja- 

How lone: did he reign? — 7. During the reign of Solomon, v/hat is said of the king- 
dom of Israel? "What did he direct? "What is said of commerce ? What did Solo- 
mon do when elated by prosperity ? — S. What was the mosi remarkable event of his 
reign? What was it probably? What books are aseribea to mm? In what does i.e 
'appear to have been immersed? How many wives haa he? Into what was he 
diawn? When did he die? — 9. On the accession of Rehoboam, -vhal broKe ouL? 



104 JEWISH HISTORY. 

min loyal to their lawful sovereign. The revolted tribes elected 
Jeroboam for their king, and the monarchy was thus divided into 
two separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 

10. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well as a 
political separation. Being persuaded that should he permit his 
subjects to go into the kingdom of Judah, in order to perform the 
duties of religion in the temple at Jerusalem, they would by de- 
grees lose their respect for his authority, and perhaps return to 
the allegiance of their former sovereign; he therefore ordered two 
new temples to be built, the one at Bethel and the other at Dan; 
and in them two golden calves to be set up and divine honors 
to be paid to them, as to the God who had conducted the children 
of Israel out of the land of Egypt. Jeroboam, after a turbulent 
reign of twenty-two years, finished a wicked life by an unhappy 
end. His name is never mentioned in holy scripture but with 
detestation, on account of his having set up the worship of idols, 
which was continued by all the kings who succeeded to the 
throne of Israel, until an end was put to that kingdom by the 
Assyrians. 

li. After this memorable epoch, the history of the two king- 
doms of Israel and Judah, for a period of almost four hundred 
years, exhibits a series of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servi- 
tude, and affliction from famine and pestilence. At length, the 
kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The people were 
transported into Assyria and dispersed into different parts of 
the country, from which they never returned. The few left in 
Canaan were intermixed with strangers, and from that mixture 
of different nations originated a race of people, who were after- 
wards known by the name of Samaritans. This event took place 
about 720 A. C, after the kingdom had subsisted two hundred I 
and fifty-four years. 

12. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a i 
precarious existence; it was invaded at different times by the 
Babylonians; at length rendered tributary, and finally subju- 
gated; its metropolis, the city of Jerusalem, was destroyed, the 
temple was demolished by the order of the conqueror, Nebuchad- 
nezzar; all the principal inhabitants were stripped of every thing : 
valuable, and carried captives to Babylon. Thus ended the king- ■ 
dom of Judah, after it had subsisted four hundred and sixty-eight 
years from the beginning of the reign of David, and three hun- 
dred and eighty-eight years alter the separation of the ten tribes 

13. The privation of liberty and the miseries of bondage seem 
to have brought the Jewish people to a sense of their past trans- 
gressions. Unable to resist the power of man, they now placed 
their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God, who 
heard their supplications and looked with compassion on their 

Whom did the revolted tribes elect?— 10. What did the policy of Jeroboam produce? 
What did he order? Why is his name mentioned with detestation in the Scripture?— 
11. After this epoch, what does the history exhibit ? What at length happened? What 
became of the people? When did this event take place? — 12. What is said of the 
Kingdom of Judah? What at length happened 1o it? What became of the inhabitant! 
How long had it subsisted ? — 13. Unable to resist the power of jrum, what did they 
do ? 



JEWISH HIST014Y. ] 05 

sufferings, Cyrus* king of Persia, having conquered Babylon, 
published a decree by which the Jewish people were set at liber- 
ty, and permitted to return to their native country, after they had 
languished in captivity for seventy years: the decree, moreover, 
allowed them to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple, of which 
Cyrus gave them a new plan, and ordered that the expense of 
erecting it should be paid out of the royal treasury. He also 
restored to them all the sacred vessels which had been brought 
to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, when the temple was destroyed. 
In consequence of this edict, about forty-two thousand of the 
Jewish people commenced their march toward their native coun- 
try, where they arrived about five hundred and thirty-six years 
oefore the Christian era. From this period the Israelites, who 
returned from captivity, are properly called Jews, because the 
tribe of Judah was by far the most powerful after their restoration 
to liberty. 



SECTION III. 

From the restoration of the Jeivs to their native country ; to the 
Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, 

1. Many of the Jews remained at Babylon, while those who 
returned to Palestine began the work of rebuilding the temple 
with alacrity and vigor. When it began to raise above the foun- 
dation, the young manifested their delight in tears of joy, whilst 
the ancients wept to see how far the outlines of the new edifice 
fell short of the old. The progress of the work suffered a tempo- 
rary obstruction, through the intrigues of their enemies and the 
caprice of Cambyses, the successor of Cyrus. But in the begin- 
ning of the reign of Darius, the decree of Cyrus in favor of the 
Jews was ratified ; and that prince even contributed liberally 
towards the expense, and in the sixth year of his reign, the temple 
was completed and dedicated with great solemnity. 

2. Darius, during the remainder of his reign, continued to 
manifest his favor for the Jews, and their privileges were con- 
firmed by his son Xerxes. Their interest was stilf greater with 
Artaxerxes, called Ahasuerus in the Scripture, through the influ- 
ence of his queen, Esther, a Jewess, and also through the services 
of her uncle, Mordecai, who had discovered and frustrated a 
conspiracy against the king's life. From Artaxerxes, Ezra ob 
tained liberal donations to be applied to the service of the temple, 
and full power to govern the Jews: and Nehemiah was after- 
wards commissioned to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and to 

What did Cyrus publish? What did the decree allow? What did he restore? In 
consequence of this edict, what was done ? From '.!..? period, why are they called 
Jews ? 

1. When the temple began to rise above its foundation, what is said of the young? 
What did the progress of the work suffer? In the beginning of th^ reign of Darius, 
what was done? — 2. What did Darius continue to do? Through whose influence whp 
'heir interest still greater with Artaxerxes? What did Ezra obtain from Ar'axerx«s 1 



106 JEWISH HISTORV. 

reform many abuses among the people. Ezra and Nchcmuili 
seem to have been the two last governors of Jiulah, which proba- 
bly became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the high- 
priest derived his authority. 

3. From this period, most of the calamities which befel the 
Jewish nation must be ascribed to the men who aspired to the 
sacerdotal dignity, through motives of ambition and avarice more 
than zeal for religion. For several centuries, the office of high 
priest was the chief object of ambition among the leading men of 
the state. The candidates purchased the office from the Assyrian 
governors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they 
oppressed the people with taxes that they might meet their pecu- 
niary engagements, and the high-priest, Menelaus, sold some of 
the richest vessels belonging to the temple. 

4. About the year 328, A. C, Alexander the Great having be- 
sieged Tyre, was greatly incensed against the Jews, because they 
had refused to supply his army with provisions during the siege. 
After the taking of Tyre, he marched to Jerusalem with the in- 
tention of punishing the Jews for their disobedience to his orders. 
Juddica, the high-priest, was ordered in a dream to meet the 
threatening conqueror in his pontifical robes, at the head ol all 
the priests in their proper habits, and attended by the people 
dressed in white garments. Alexander was struck with this 
religious pomp, .md approaching the high-priest with the deepest 
respect, embraced him with a kind of religious veneration* 11 j 
told his attendants, who expressed their surprise at this submit 
sive behavior, that he did not pay this profound respect to the 
high-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. 

5. Alexander, on his departure, granted to the Jews the free 
dom of their country, laws and religion, and exempted them from 
paying tribute every seventh year; and during his whole reign 
they enjoyed great tranquillity: but with him the prosperous con- 
dition of their country expired. Judea was successively invaded 
and subdued by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people re- 
duced to bondage. The Jews keprthe Sabbath so rigidly, that 
they would not, on that day, engage in battle nor defend them- 
selves, although attacked by an enemy. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, 
having invaded Judea, took advantage , of this religious impedi- 
ment. He entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day without resist- 
ance, and carried away to Egypt one hundred thousand captives. 

6. About the year 198, A. C, Jlntiochus the Great, king of 
Syria, after taking the city of Jerusalem, and plundering the 
temple, sold forty thousand Jews to the neighboring nations, and 
established paganism through Judea. The sacrifices ceased, and 
for a season there scarcely existed the slightest external signs cf 
religion. During the scene of desolation which stained the land 

"Who seem to have been the last governors of Tudah? — 3. From this period, to what 
must most of the calamities be ascribed? From whom did the candidates purchase 
the office ? — 4. What happened about the year 328? AVhat is related of Juddica, the 
nigh-priest? What did Alexander tell his attendants? — 5. AVhat was granted to the 
Jews by Alexander? By whom was Judea now invaded? "What did Ptolemy, king 
nf Egypt, do ? — 6. AVhat was done by Antiochus the Great ? During the scene of deso- 
lation, vvha' did Mattathias undertake ? 



JEWISH HISTORY. 107 

of Judea with the blood of its best citizens, Mattathias, a man of 
die sacerdotal order, undertook the deliverance of his country 
lie retired into the wilderness with his five sons, sur named the 
Maccabees, and was soon joined by a great number of the Jews, 
who wished to avoid idolatry and religious persecution. An 
army was shortly raised sufficiently strong to face the enemy in 
the field. Mattathias, placing himself at the head of his forces, 
led them against the troops ot Antiochus, and forced them to 
retreat before him, and to fly for safety beyond the boundaries of 
Judea. 

7. After the death of Mattathias, Juclas Maccabees, his eldest 
son, was placed at the head of the army. The achievements of 
this distinguished man, the deliverance of his country from fo- 
reign oppression, his talents, bravery, and patriotism, have ranked 
him among the most illustrious heroes of Greece and Rome. 
His patriotism was only surpassed by his zeal for religion. Hav- 
ing vanquished the enemies of his country, his first care was to 
repair the devastations they had caused. The temple was in a 
desolate condition, the altar and sanctuary profaned, the gates 
burned, and court overgrown with shrubs. Having appointed 
priests of unblemished character for the performance of the sacri 
fices, he repaired the holy places, threw down the altar on which 
the idol of Jupiter stood, and haying erected another, dedicated it 
with great joy and religious festivity. The sacred veil was again 
hung up, and the sacred vessels, golden candlesticks, and altar 
of perfumes, were again replaced. Juclas Maccabees having thus, 
by many signal victories, delivered his country from bondage and 
idolatry, was at last slain in battle, 157, A. C. 

8. The brothers of Judas, pursuing the advantage already 
gained, completely established the independence of their country, 
and the republican form of government afterwards changed to 
that of a monarchy. John Hyrcanus, the son of Simon Macca- 
bees, united in his person the office of high-priest and that of 
commander-in-chief of the army, and possessing all the abilities 
requisite for the military and pontifical offices, he vanquished the 
enemies of his country and firmly established his authority. His 
sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings, and the suc- 
cession remained in his family for about one hundred and twenty- 
six years. The unfortunate dissensions of this family terminated 
ultimately in the conquest of Judea, by Pompey the Great, who 
took Jerusalem and subjugated the Jewish nation to the dominion 
of the Romans, 59, A. C. 

9. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by 
the favor and under the protection of the Romans, who placed 
Herod the Great, son of Antipater, on the throne of David. This 
prince demolished the old temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt in a 
very magnificent manner. He reigned with great splendor, but 

Where did he retire ?— 7. Who was now placed at the head of the army * What is 
said of his achievements? Of the temple? What did he thro^v down? How did 
Judas Maccabees die?— 8. What is said of the brothers of Judas ? Of Jol n Hyrco- 
nui? What did his sons assume? Wiio conquered Judea? — 3. After this, by whom 
whs the Jewish momrchy re-established ? In whose favour? What did this prince 
do? 



108 JEWISH HISTORY. 



was cruel and despotic ; his public life exhibits a continued scene 
of battles,'tyranny, and violence. His reign is rendered memo- 
rable by tjie birth of oud divine Saviour, Jesus Christ. When 
this remarkable event took place, the Wise Men, as the scripture 
calls them, from the east came to Jerusalem to adore the new- 
horn king - of the Jews, anct desired to know where he was to be 
found. Herod, aware that Ve had no other title to the crown of 
Judea than that which the\Romans had given him, was much 
alarmed at this inquiry which\was made about another king. He 
therefore dismissed the Wise Men with a strict injunction to bring 
him back an account of the child, when they had found it, that lie 
might go, as he pretended, to adtoe it. The Wise Men, having 
paid their adoration to the infantVt the manger of Bethlehem, 
were admonished, in their sleep, to\return by another way to 
their country. Herod, finding himself thus deceived by the 
sages, with cruelty that would shock theNnost savage barbarian; 
gave orders that every male child born at ^ethlehem within the 
two last years should be put to death. Herod died in the first' 
year of the birth of Christ, or the fourth of the vulgar era. - 

10. During the reign of Herod II. St. John the Baptist was 
beheaded, because he reproved the monarch for the crime of mar- 
rying his brother's wife; it was also during the same reign that 
our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension took place. 
In the reign of his son, Herod the "Great, the Apostle, St. James, 
suffered martyrdom, and St. Peter was imprisoned ; but the un- 
happy monarch himself died a miserable death, being devoured 
by worms. 15cfore his son, Agrippa, who was the last king oi 
Judea, St. Paul pleaded in defence of the gospel. From this 
period the governors of Judea were appointed by the Roman 
emperors; in this condition it remained until the final extinction 
of the Jewish nation. 

11. The rapacity and cruelty of Floras, the last governor of 
Judea, caused a rebellion of the Jews, in which one hundred and 
fifty thousand persons are said to have perished, A. D. 66. The 
unhappy Jerusalem was now hastening to its downfall; while the 
sanguinary and violent factions among the. Jews themselves, con- 
tributed towards this event. In the reign of Yespasian, Titus, 
the Roman general, was sent into Judea to suppress the revolt of 
the Jews. He commenced the siege of the city about the festival 
of Easter, at which time an immense multitude of people was 
shut up within the walls. With so much ardor did Titus con- 
duct the operations of the siege, that the city was taken within 
the space of five months, and so completely demolished, that 
not a stone was left upon a stone, except a part of the western 
wall, and three towers preserved for the Roman garrison left in 
Judea. 

12. The last siege of Jerusalem was attended with scenes of 

For what is his re gn memorable? When this event took place, what is related? 
Finding himself deceived, what orders did he srive? — 10. Why was St. John beheaded 1 
What took place in the reiirn of Herod the Great? From this period, how were the 
governor':- appointed? — 1!. What did the rapacity of Floras cause ? In the reign of Vea. 
pasian, what took place ? How long did the siepe last? What is said of the destruc- 
tion of the city ? — 12 What is said of the siege of Jerusalem '' 



K 



JEWISH HISTORY. 109 

carnage, famine, disease and desperation, far more horrible than 
any to b£ met with in the annals of human misery. During the 
calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many instances 
f humanity towards the besieged, and made every effort for the 
preservation of the city and temple, but in vain; and viewing the 
disasters that befel the nation, he confessed that he was only the 
instrumen\of divine vengeance. The magnificent temple of the 
Jews perished with the general wreck of the nation, thus lite- 
rally fulfilling the predictions of our Lord concerning the utter 
destruction of Jerusalem. This event took place about the year 
72, A. D. . . ■ 

13. According to the most accurate calculation, about eleven 
hundred thousand Jews perished during the siege of their capital, 
and ninety-seven thousand, who were made prisoners, were sold 
as slaves to different nations. Since that time the descendants 
of those who survived the dissolution of the Jewish nation have 
been wandering from nation to nation, objects of contempt rather 
than of commiseration. In but few countries have they enjoyed 
the same privileges as those among whom they were permitted to 
reside. 

14. Antiquities. The country of the ancient Hebrews was 
distinguished by several names, such as the land of Canaan, the 
Iloly Land, Palestine, Judea, &c; and the people themselves 
were variously called, as the people of God, Israelites and Jews. 
After the entrance of the Israelites into the land of Canaan, it 
was divided into twelve different portions, which were assigned 
to the twelve several tribes into which they were separated. 

15. Remains or Ancient Works. Among the ancient works 
of Palestine, Jacob's well, the pools of Solomon, Gihon, and 
Bethesa, and sepulchral monuments, are the most remarkable. 
Jacob's well is highly venerated on account of its great antiquity 
It is hewn out of the solid rock, about one hundred feet in 
depth, and nine in diameter, and is at present covered with a 
stone vault. 

The pools of Solomon, supposed to have been constructed by 
the order of that monarch, appear to have been a work ol im- 
mense cost and labor. They are three in a row, so situated 
that the water of the uppermost may fall into the second, and 
from second to the third. They are of equal breadth, being about 
ninety paces each; though they vary in length, the longest being 
two hundred and twenty paces. The pools of Gihon and Bethesa 
are similar works, and may be ranked among the most stately 
ruins. The sepulchral monuments are to be found in various 
parts of the country. The most magnificent remains of this kind 
are the royal sepulchres witirin the walls of Jerusalem; they are 
all hewn out of the solid marble rock, and contain several spa- 
cious apartments. 

Of Titus ? Of the temple? When did this eveni take place ?— 13. How many Jews 
perished during the siege? He jv many were sold as slaves? Since that time what 
is said of the inhabitants ?— 14. What is said of the country ? How was it divided ? 
—15. What are some of the ancient works of Palestine? What is said of Jacob's 
well? Of Solomon's pools? What are the pools Gihon and Eethesa? Which are 
the incst magnificent of the seuulchral m moments? 

10 



110 JEWISH HISTORY. 

10. Cities. Of these, Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country 
and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, 
and no place in the world recalls so many hallowed associations 
The city was built on several hills, the largest of which was 
Mount Zion. It was enlarged and embellished by David, Solo- 
mon, and other kings. On the east or lower city was Mount 
Moriah, on which stood the magnificent temple of Solomon. 
After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a new city was 
built in the reign of Adrian, the Roman emperor, and called 
JElla Capilolhm, but there was a considerable alteration in the 
site. Mount Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was 
not comprised within the limits of the newone. It subsists at 
the present time in a deplorable condition, inhabited by Turks, 
Jews, and Christians. Gaza and Ascalon were the other two 
most noted cities. 

17. Manners and Customs. The rite of circumcision has dis- 
tinguished the Jewish people from the earliest period of their 
history. It was always accompanied with great feasting and other 
demonstrations of joy. At this time, the child was named in the 
presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and wine 
were distributed. 

Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been very plain . 
bread, water, and vinegar were in common use. Honey was es- 
teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was considered 
excellent for food. 

Their amusements seem to have consisted chiefly in social re- 
pasts, music, and dancing, which partook of a religious character. 
Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending 
their garments, tearing their hair, heaping ashes upon their heads 
wearing sackcloth, and lying on the ground. From the paim 
they took to provide a place of burial for themselves and their 
descendants, it is evident that they considered it a heavy calamity 
to be denied a burial, and a favor to be interred among their 
ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their own land, and were 
often cut out of a rock. 

18. The language of the Jews was the Hebrew, the genius of 
which is pure, primitive, and natural; and it is highly probable 
that they had the art of writing very early. The materials on 
which they first wrote were plates of stone; they afterwards used 
what was called rolls, which is supposed to be a kind of parch- 
ment. The arts in which they most excelled were those of war, 
husbandry, poetry, and music. Their situation made them a war- 
like people, being surrounded by enemies. Their arms of defence 
were the shield, helmet, coat of mail, and breast-plate; their 
offensive weapons were the two-edged sword, javelin, sling, and 
the bow and arrow. In poetry they peculiarly excelled ; their 
inspired productions, as to native energy and beauty, are unrivalled. 

16. Which was the most celebrated city? On what was it built? ^Vhen was a 
new city built? What are the other most nottd cities ? — 1 7. What rile has distinguished 
the Jewish people ? What is said of their diet? Of what did their amusements con- 
sist? l!o\v was their mourning for the dead expressed ?— 18. What is said of the .r 
language ? On what did they write? What did the situation make them? What 
were their arms? In poe'.ry, what is said of them? 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS 

1 . All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were heathens 
and idolaters. Their system of religion was called Polytheism, 
as it acknowledged a plurality of gods, and they worshipped 
their divinities by various representations, called idols. The first 
objects of adoration among the pagan nations, after they had lost 
the correct knowledge of the true God, were the heavenly bodies. 
Hence we find that the names of the principal »-ods correspond 
with the names of the chief planets, such as Saturn, Jupiter, 
l r enus, &c. Osiris and his, .the principal deities among the 
Egyptians, are supposed to have been the sun and moon. In the 
process of time, they built temples to the heavenly bodies, as 
being subordinate agents of the divine power, and by worshipping 
them they supposed they would obtain the favor of the Deity. 
From this they descended to the worship of objects on the earth, 
as they were thought to represent the stars or the Deity; thus 
idolatry arose shortly after the deluge. 

2. In the course of time, adoration was bestowed on those ob- 
jects which were thought to confer peculiar benefits on man. 
Thus the Egyptians regarded the Nile as sacred, because by its 
inundations it fertilized the earth. Again, great heroes and per- 
sons, who, during their lives, had been benefactors to the human 
race, were deified after their death. From these they descended 
to the worship of the most degrading objects, and paid divine 
honors to beasts, birds, insects, and even to vegetables, such as 
leeks and onions ; moreover, temples were dedicated to evil de- 
mons and the most debasing passions. 

3. The Babylonians adored the heavenly bodies, and among 
them Jupiter was worshipped, under the name of Belus,to whom 
magnificent temples were erected at Babylon. The Canaanites 
and Syrians worshipped Baal, Tammuz, Magog, and Astarte. 
Moloch was the Saturn of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, to 
tvhom human victims, particularly children, were immolated. 
Baal-pcor was the idol of the Moabites ; his rites were degrading 
and cruel. . Dagon was the chief god of the Philistines; his 
figure was a compound of a man and a fish. Among the Celts, 
the sacred rites were performed in groves dedicated to their gods, 
to whom human victims were frequently offered ; colossal images 
of wicker-work were filled with human criminals and consumed 
by fire. 

4. According to the pagan theology, there were twelve chief, 
deities engaged in the creation and government of the universe. 
Agreeable to this theory, Jupiter, Neptune, and Vulcan fabricated 
the world ; Ceres, Juno and Diana animated it ; Mercury, Venus 
and Apollo harmonized it ; and lastly, Vesta, Minerva and Mars 

1. What were all the nations of antiquity? What was their system called ? What 
were the first objects of adoration ? What do we find ? In the process of time, what 
did they do? — 2. AVhat did the Egyptians regard? Why ? To what was divine ho- 
nours paid ?— 3. What is said of the Babylonians ? What was Moloch? Baal-peor' 
Dagon? Among the Celts, where were the snered rites performed ? — 4. Agreeable 10 
this theory, what is said of the world? What were these twelve called? 

ill 



1 12 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

presided over it with a guardian power, and these twelve were 
called the celestial deities. 

Jupiter, who was represented as supreme, and styled the father 
of the gods and men, was the son of Saturn and Cybele, and was 
born on Mount Ida, in Crete. He deposed his father, and divided 
the world between himself and his two brothers, Neptune and 
Pluto. Neptune had the jurisdiction over the sea, and Pluto 
that of the infernal regions; but the sovereignty of heaven and 
earth he reserved to himself. One of his chief exploits was the 
conquest of the Titans or giants, who are said to have placed 
several mountains on each other, in order to scale the heavens. 
He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated upon 
a throne, with a sceptre in one hand and thunderbolts in ths other. 
The heavens tremble at his nod, and he governed all things except 
the Fates. 

5. Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and was born on 
the island of Delos. He presided over music, medicine, poetry, 
the fine arts, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, 
he was banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a 
shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly, in which employment he 
remained for nine years. His exploits are represented as extra- 
ordinary; among others he caused Midas to receive a pair of 
asses' ears, for preferring Parts music to his; he turned into a 
violet the beautiful boy Hyacinth, whom he accidentally killed; 
and changed Daphne into a laurel. 

6. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god of 
war, and the patron of all that is cruel and furious ; the horse, 
the wolf, the magpie and vulture, were offered to him. During 
the Trojan war, Mars was wounded by TJiomedes, and retreating 
to heaven, he complained to Jupiter that Minerva had directed 
the weapon of his antagonist. He is represented as an old man, 
armed and standing in a chariot drawn by two horses, called 
Fright and Terror; his sister Bellona was his charioteer ; Dis- 
cord went before him in a tattered garment with a torch, Angei 
and Clamor followed. 

7. Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Mala, was the messenger 
of the gods, and the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, 
merchants, thieves and dishonest persons. He was doubtless 
some enlightened person, in a remote age, who, on account of his 
actions and services, was worshipped after his death. He seems 
to have been the first who taught the arts of civilization. 

Vulcan, the son of Jupiter and Juno, was the god of fire, ami 
the patron of those who wrought in the metallic arts. He was 
kicked out of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his 
mother from a chain by which she was suspended. He continued 
to descend for nine successive days and nights, and at length fell 
upon the isle of Lcmnos, but was crippled by the fall. He was 

What is Jupiter styled? What did lie do? What is one of his chief exploits ? How 
ig he represented? — 5. ^'ho wus Apollo? Over what did he preside? From where 
was he banished? What were his exploits?— 6. Who was Mars? Of what was h« 
the pod? During the Troj \n war. what is said of him? How is he represented ?— 
7. What was Mcreury? What did he teach ? AVho was Vulcan? What is raid cf 
him? What did he forge? 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 113 

the artificer of heaven, and forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, 
also the arms of the gods. 

8. Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and 
wife of Jupiter. In her character, she was haughty, jealous, and 
inexorable. In her figure she was lofty, graceful and majestic ; 
Iris, displaying the rich colors of the rainbow, was her usual 
attendant. 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was the most accomplished 
of all the goddesses, and the only divinity that seems equal to 
Jupiter. She is said to have instructed man in the arts of ship- 
building, navigation, spinning, and weaving. Her worship was 
universally established, but at Athens it claimed particular atten- 
tion. The owl was sacred to her. 

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter ot 
Jupiter and Dione, or, as some say, she sprung from the foam of 
the sea. Her worship was licentious in a high degree, and attended 
with most disgraceful ceremonies. 

Diana was the queen of the woods, and the goddess of hunting. 
She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and was attended by 
eighty nymphs. The poppy was sacred to her. 

9. Ceres, the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, was the goddess 
of corn and harvest, and the first who taught the cultivation of 
the earth. TheEleusinian Mysteries were celebrated in her honor. 

Vesta was the goddess of fire, and the guardian of houses. She 
was represented in along flowing robe, a veil on her head, a lamp 
in one hand, and a javelin in the other. 

10. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was the second in rank 
among the gods, and reigned over the sea. He is represented 
seated on a chariot drawn by dolphins and sea horses ; in his hand 
he holds a trident or sceptre, with three prongs. Oceanus, a sea 
god, was called the father of rivers. Triton, also a marine deity, 
was the son of Neptune and Amphrttite; he was his father's com- 
panion and trumpeter. Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, 
was the father of fifty daugnters, who were called Nereides. Pro- 
teus, the son of Oceanus, could foretell future events, and change 
himself into any shape. 

11. The infernal deities were, Pluto and his consort Proser- 
pine, Plufus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, 
Minos, JEaeus, and Rh adamant hits. Pluto, who exercised do 
minion over the infernal regions, was the brother of Jupiter. The 
goddesses all refusing to marry him, on account of his deformity 
and gloomy disposition, he seized upon Proserpine, the daughter 
of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, and car- 
ried her to his residence ; and having married her, made her 
queen of hell. There were no temples raised to his honor. Plu- 
tus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches; he was lame, blind, 
injudicious, and timorous. 

8. What was Juno ? W T hat was she in her character ? In her figure? What was 
Minerva] What is said of her J What was sacred to her ? Who was. Venus '■ What 
is said of her worship ? Who was Diana?— 9. Who was Ceres? What were cele- 
brated in her honour? What was Vesta ? How was she represented ?— 10. What was 
Neptune? How is she represented ? Who was Oceanus? Triton ? Nereus? Proteus? — 
11. Name the infernal deities ? What is said of Pluto ? Who was Plutus ? What was he? 



I 14 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

12. Charon was the ferryman, who conducted the ghosts across 
the river Lethe, on their way to Pluto's regions. He is represented 
as an old man, with white hair, a lon^ beard, and garments de- 
formed with filth, and remarkable for the harshness of his speech,, 
and ill temper. None could enter Charon's boat if they had not 
received a regular burial ; without this, they were supposed to 
wander a hundred years amidst the mud and slime of the shore. 
Each ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. 

13. The Furies were three in number, namely: Alecto, Tisi- 
phone and Megxra. They had the faces of women, but their looks 
were full of terror, they held lighted torches in their hands, and 
snakes lashed their necks and shoulders. Their office was to 
punish the crimes of wicked men, and to torment the consciences 
of secret offenders. 

The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter and Themis. Their 
names were, Clotho, Lachesis, and Alropos. They decided on 
the fortunes of mankind ; Clotho drew the thread of life; Lache- 
sis turned the wheel, and Atropos cut it with her scissors. The 
duty of the three judges was to assign the various punishments 
of the wicked, adapted to their crimes ; and to place the good in 
the delightful realms of Elysium. 

14. There were many other divinities of various characters, 
such as Bacchus, Cupid, the Muses, the Graces, &c. Bacchus, 
iheson of Jupiter and Semele, was the god of wine. Mis festivals 
were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed themselves 
in skins, and ran shouting through the hills and country places; 
these solemnities were attended with the most disgusting scenes 
of intoxication and debauchery. The fir, the fig tree, ivy and 
vine were sacred to him. 

Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged 
boy; often with a bandage over his eyes, also with a bow and ar- 
row in his hand, with which to wound the hearts of mortals. 

The Muses were nine in number, namely : Calliope, who pre- 
sided over eloquence, and heroic and epic poetry ; Clio presided 
over history ; Erato was. the Muse of elegiac and lyric poe- 
try; Euterpe presided over music ; Melpomene was the inven- 
tress and muse of tragedy; Polyhymnia was the muse of singing 
and rhetoric ; Terpsichore^ presided over dancing ; Thalia, the 
muse of pastoral and comic poetry; and Urania, who presided 
over hymns and sacred subjects ; and also the muse of astronomy I 

15. The Graces were the three daughters of Bacchus and 
Venus ; they were supposed to give to beauty all its charms of 
attraction, besides these, there were several rural deities ; such as 
Pan, the god of shepherds and hunters ; Sylvanus< who presided 
over the woods ; Priapus, the god of the gardens ; Terminus, who 
was considered as watching over the boundaries of land; and others 

12. Who was Charon ? How is he represented ? What is said of those who did not 
receive a regular burial?— 13. Name the Furies? What had they ? What was their 
office ? Name the Fates ? What did each one do ? What was the duty of the judges ? 
— 14. Name some of the other divinities ? What was Bacchus? What is said of his 
festivals? What is said of Cupid? AVhat was the number of the muses, and ovor 
what did they preside ?-- 15. Who were the Graces? What was Pan? Svlvanua? Pi la- 
pus ? Terminus ? 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 115 

The Sirens were three fabulous persons, who are said to have 
had the faces of women, and the lower parts of their bodies like a 
fish. They had such melodious voices that mariners were often 
allured and destroyed by them. The Gorgons were three sisters, 
who are said to have had the power of transforming those into 
stones who looked upon them. The Harpies were winged mon- 
sters, which had the face of a woman, the body and wings of a 
vulture, claws on the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. 

16. The objects of worship among the ancient nations, pat fi- 
cularly among the Greeks and Romans, are said to have amounted 
to thirty thousand. To these, temples were erected, festivals in- 
stituted, games celebrated, and sacrifices offered, with a greater 
or less degree of pomp, according to the degree of estimation in 
which the deity was held. The most celebrated temples of anti 
Baity, were those of Diana &t Ephesus, of Apollo, in the city of 
Miletus, of Cerus and Proserpine, at Eleusis, and that of Jupiter 
Olympus, and the Parthenon of Minerva, at Athens. The famous 
temple of Diana, at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the 
world, was completed two hundred and twenty years after its 
foundation. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length, 
and two hundred in breadth : the roof was supported by one hun- 
dred and twenty-seven columns, sixty feet high, placed there by 
so many kings. This temple was burnt on the night that Alex 
ander the Great was born, by Erostratus, who alleged that he 
perpetrated the deed merely for the purpose of immortalizing his 
name in destroying so magnificent a building. 

17. Oracles were consulted, particularly by the Greeks and 
Romans, on all important occasions, and their determinations 
were held sacred and inviolable. The most celebrated oracles were 
those of Apollo, at Be/phi and Delos ; the oracles of Jupiter, at 
Dodona, ami that of Trophonius ; where future events were made 
known to those who sought to know the will of the gods. The 
responses were generally delivered by a priestess, who was sup- 
posed to be divinely inspired; but usually in verse, and contained 
in very ambiguous language, so that one answer would agree 
with various and sometimes opposite events. It must, however, 
]>c confessed, that sometimes the answers of the oracles were sub- 
stantially correct, a fact which is proved by many passages in 
ancient history ; but it is a question among the learned, whether the 
answers of the oracles should be ascribed to the operations of dc 
inons, or only to the imposture of men. The best established 
opinion is, that demons were the real agents in the oracles, 
although we find many instances in Grecian history, where the 
Delphic priestess suffered herself to be corrupted by presents, 
and gave an answer to suit the will or to gratify the passions 01 
inclination of those who came to consult her. 

18. There is one fact, however, deserving of notice namely, 

What were the Sirens ? The Gordons? The Karpies ?— 1(5. What was the nnmbei 
of objects of worship ? Name the most celebra^d temples? What is said of the temple 
of Diana at Ephesus ? By whom was it burnt W-\7. What is said of Oracles ? Which 
were the most celebrated ? How were the responses given? What is a question 
among the learned ? What is the best established opinion ? 



116 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

that the responses of the oracles ceased when Christianity began 
to be preached ; not on a sudden, but in proportion as it.3 salutaiy 
doctrines became known to mankind. Teriullian, in .one of his 
apologies, challenges the pagans to make the experiment, and 
consents that a Christian should be put to death, if lie did not ob- 
lige the oracles to confess themselves devils. Lactanihu informs 
us that every Christian could silence the oracles only by making 
the sign of the cross. When Julian, the apostate, went to Daphne, 
near Antioch, to consult Apollo, the god, notwithstanding all the 
sacrifices offered to him, continued mute, and only recovered his 
speech to answer those who inquired the cause of his silence, and 
ascribed it to the interment of certain Christian bodies in the 
neighborhood. 

19. The ancients generally inculcated the belief in a future 
state of existence, believing that the virtuous would be happy in 
Elysium or Paradise, and that the wicked would be miserable in 
Tartarus, or Hell. Of hell, they drew the most gloomy and 
horrific picture, where men, who had been remarkable for theii 
crimes, while on earth, were punished with a variety of tortures, 
On the contrary, the prospect of Elysium was described as beau- 
tiful and inviting in the highest degree. In that delightful region, 
there was no inclement weather, but mild winds constantly blew 
from the ocean, to refresh the inhabitants, who lived without care 
or anxiety ; the sky was perpetually serene, and the fertile earth 
produced, twice a year, delicious fruit in abundance. 

18. What fact deserves notice ? Of what does Lactantius inform us T What is re- 
lated of Julian?— 19. Of what did the ancients inculcate the belief? Of hell, whatpio- 
tare did thcv draw ? How was Elysium described ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Various periods have been adopted by different historians for 
the commencement of Modern History. Some have adopted the 
establishment of the Western Empire, under Charlemagne, 
A. D. 800 ; others again, have taken the downfall of the Western 
Empire of the Romans, A. D. 476, while the majority assume 
(he commencement of the Christian era. That portion of Modern 
History, styled the Middle Ages, will claim our first attention. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 

1. The period intervening between the subversion of tlie 
Western Empire of the Romans, to the downfall of the Eastern 
Empire, has been usually denominated the Middle Ages,* and by 
some writers, the Dark Ages. The great majority of writers 
represent Europe, during those ages, as sunk in ignorance and 
barbarism. How far they are correct in their estimate, we leave 
for the reader to judge, after giving a summary view of these 
ages separately. 

2. The Sixth Age. During the early part of the preceding 
century, the Roman Empire of the West had been rapidly on the 
decline, until its final overthrow in the year 476. The inundation 
of the northern hordes of Goths, Vandals, and Huns, undei 
Alaric, Attila, and other leaders, had swept from the face of Italy 
almost every trace of civilization, and planted on its once fertile 
plains a wild and savage race of barbarians. Under the oppres- 
sive reign of Anastasius in the East, insurrections prevailed in 
the provinces, and sedition at Constantinople itself. The empire 
was assailed from without by the Persians, Bulgarians, Arabians, 
and the barbarous tribes from the north. Under his successors, 
Justin and Justinian, an uninterrupted series of war continued to 
rage in different parts of the empire. Italy and the West had 
been severed from it towards the close of the preceding century, 
After a long and sanguinary contest, during which Rome was re- 
peatedly taken and retaken by the contending powers, Italy was 
again reconquered by Belisarius and Narses, the generals of 
Justinian. 

1 "What period has been denominated the Middle Ages? — 2. What is said of tho 
•sarly part of the preceding century? What had the inundation, &c, swept from the 
ace of Italy ? What prevailed in the East? Under Justin and Justinian, what con- 
tinued ? What is said of Italy ? 

♦Some historians regard only the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries as the Middle 
Ages. 



118 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

3. In Gaul, the Burgundians, Franks, and Visigoths were al- 
most incessantly at war. In Africa and in Spain, the Goths and 
Vandals were constantly engaged in civil broils with each other, 
or at war with the Romans ; and England, during the whole of 
this century, struggled for its liberty with the Saxons, Jutes and 
Angles, who eventually established their empire in the island; 
called the Heptarchy. In this violent and general confusion that 
prevailed throughout Christendom, we may easily infer what must 
have been the decay of learning and science. The rude bar- 
barians who had subjugated nations more polished than them- 
selves, were indebted only to their courage for success, and valued 
no other arts than those of managing, with effect, the buckler ami 
the sword; literature and polite arts they esteemed below the 
notice of warriors who had subdued the kingdoms of the West. 
Whatever of learning survived the wreck of barbarian devasta- 
tion, found an asylum in the monastic institutions, and in those 
towns where a bishop held his residence, at which a school ol 
literature and theology was usually established. 

4. If amidst the ignorance which almost universally prevailed, 
owing to the causes above mentioned, we find certain practices 
of a superstitious nature, it is not a matter of surprise. Some 
were persuaded that providence would not suffer perjury, false- 
hood, or any crime against justice, to go unpunished, and that he 
would never permit the innocent to perish, in whatever circum- 
stances they might be placed. This belief gave rise to all those 
various kinds of ordeals, by water, by tire, single combat, and the 
like. Among the writers of the sixth century, the following 
names are eminently distinguished : St. Gregory the Great, 
bishop of Rome; St Cresarius, archbishop of Aries ; Evagrius 
the Syrian, an ecclesiastical historian; St.Fulgentius, an African 
bishop; St. Gregory of Tours, who, in ten books wrote the his- 
tory of the Franks ; and also St. John Climacus. 

5. The Seventh Age. At the commencement of this century, 
Phocas occupied the throne at Constantinople, a tyrant possessed 
of almost every vice that can inflict disgrace on humanity, with- 
out a redeeming virtue. While he amused himself with the op- 
pression of his subjects, the barbarians overrun the provinces of 
the empire, and filled them with carnage and desolation. Undci 
the reign of Heraclius, his successor, the state was delivered from 
external foes ; he wrested the provinces from the hands of the 
Persians, and spread the terror of his arms over the East. But 
his vast dominions had been depopulated by the continual wars 
which the empire had to sustain against the ravages of the barba 
rians, and by the absolute and arbitrary power of cruel and 
avaricious governors, while that portion of his subjects which stifl 
remained groaned under the weight of oppression. 

6. Such was the state of things, when Mahometanism rose, and 

3. What prevailed in Gaul ? In Africa and Spain? In England? In this violent 
confusion, what may we infer? What is said of the rude barbarians? Where did 
learning find an asylum? — 4. What is no matter of surprise? What were some per- 
suaded ? To what did this behef give rise? Who were distinguished as writers in 
this century ? — 5. Who now occupied the throne of Constantinople ? Under the reign 
of Heraclius, what was doue?— 6. Tn this state of things, what arose? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 119 

swept like, an impetuous torrent over the countries oi* the East, 
bearing down before it every trace of civilization, and every mo- 
nument of art. As the conquerors of the West had formerly 
esteemed no other arts than those of arms, so the new race of 
warriors in the East, equally estranged to the advantages which 
Science bestow, in the first transports of success destroyed every 
trace of literature, and every vestige of art. Such was the rapidity 
of their conquests, that before the end of this century they had 
established their dominion over Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, 
and Egypt. After the taking of Alexandria, the celebrated 
library of that city, containing from five to seven hundred thou- 
sand volumes, was consigned to the flames. 

7. The flame of war still continued to rage on the plains of 
Italy, where the restless Lombards resisted every effort of the 
Eastern emperors to re-establish their authority. France was 
portioned out into provinces, nominally governed bv kings, who 
abandoned themselves to the pursuit of pleasure, and indulged in 
effeminacy and sloth, and left the administration of the govern- 
ment to a minister, styled the Mayor of the palace. Spain was 
in a state of anarchy and civil broils; no less than fourteen kings 
reigned in this country during this century, and of this number, 
one half were dethroned, or fell by the hand of some unprincipled 
usurper. 

The general state of liteiuture and polite arts continued to de- 
cline during this century. While religious fanaticism in the East 
had absorbed all the faculties of the human mind, in the Wept, 
continual and sanguinary wars had left but little leisure for tne 
cultivation of science. 

8. The Eighth Age. The empire of the caliphs continued to 
spread, and by the beginning of this century it extended from 
Canton, in China, to the southern extremity of Spain. The em 
perors of Constantinople, during this period, without attending 
to the disorders of the state, labored industriously, either to en- 
force some erroneous doctrine regarding faith, or more laudably 
U> restore tranquillity to the church. Philippicus was scarcely 
seated on the throne, when he turned his whole attention toward 
the establishment of Monotheism. Leo, the Isaurian, and Con 
stantine, his successor, were equally industrious in prohibiting 
the veneration paid to sacred images in the churches, while the 
impress Irene zealously labored to re-establish it. The edicts 
of Leo against sacred images, caused not only commotion in the 
East, but. also produced insurrections in Italy, which the Lorn 
bards converted to their own advantage. 

9. Under their king, Astolphus, they possessed themselves of 
jvhc exarchate of Ravena, which, until this period, had remained 
under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, and subsequently 
undertook the conquest of Rome. When the imperial city was 
reduced to the last extremity, Pope Zachry applied for aid to Pe- 

Whnt did the new race of warriors do ? After tne taking of Alexandria, what wbs 
done?— 7- yVhere did the flame of war still continue ? What is said of France ? Oi 
Spain? AVh.it is said of the state of literature ? — S. What is said of the empire of the 
caliphu? Of the emperors of Constantinople? Of Philippicus? Of Leo?- -9 To 
whom did Pope Zachry apply for aid '' 



120 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

pin, the son of Charles Martel. That enterprising prince readily 
responded to the call, hastened to Italy, delivered Rome and its 
territories from the power of the Lombards, and with a noble 
generosity bestowed the territory thus acquired by his arms, on 
the sovereign pontiff, and raised the head of the Christian church 
to the title of temporal prince. 

10. Literature, at the early part of this century, was still in 
the utmost depression ; but the 'flame which had been almost ex- 
tinguished, began once more to revive in the East. At the birth 
of Mahometanism, the Mussulmen declared war indiscriminately 
against all who refused to embrace their superstitions, and death 
was the usual portion of the vanquished. But after the first trans- 
ports of their enthusiasm had subsided, they mitigated the cruelty 
of this impolitic measure, and for fear of changing their conquered 
territories into one vast wilderness of desolation, they granted a 
kind of toleration of all religions, with the exception of gross 
idolatry. This indulgence caused many who had not lost all 
taste for the arts and sciences, to settle in the dominion of the l 
caliphs. During the reign of Ommiades, and his immediate sue- j 
cessor Almanzor, every encouragement was given to letters and 
learned men. 

Thus while the emperors of Constantinople were wholly em 
ployed in compelling their subjects to adopt their own respective ij 
innovations in religion, the Saracen caliphs were endeavoring to 
diffuse a taste for science throughout their dominions. 

11. In France, the arts and sciences, which had taken refuge 
in the monasteries, were, during the early part of this century, 
banished from these sacred asylums. The continued hostilities in i 
which the country was involved, filled every place with tumult 
aiid devastation. Ecclesiastical property was distributed among j 
favourite chieftains, who, instead of providing for the subsistence 
of a competent number of clergy to serve the churches, filled the 
monasteries with their soldiery; while the monks and clerical i 
men, thus compelled to live with the military, gradually imbibed" 
their spirit. Ignorance and vice, as a natural consequence, be- 
came almost general, not only in France, but also throughout the 
continent of Europe, towards the middle of this century; Ireland 
and England were almost exclusively the seats of learning dur- 
ing this period. 

12. Fortunately for the cause of literature, Charlemagne at this 
time was called to fill the throne of France. This illustrious 
prince formed the noble design of removing the barriers which 
prevented the diffusion of kuowledsre, and of furnishing his subjects 
with the means of instruction. He established schools in all the 
principal cities and towns, throughout his vast dominions, for the 
gratuitous education of children and the ignorant; he exhorted the 
bishops and abbots again to establish schools and universities in 

What did Pepin do?— 10. What is said of literature at the early part of this cen- 
tury ? What did the Mussulmen declare? After the first transports, what did they 
mitigate ? What did this indulgence cause ? — 11. In France, what is said of the arts, 
ar.c. ? What is said of the monks and clerical men ? Of ignorance and vice? Of Ire 
and, &c?— 12. Who was called to the throne of France ? "What is said of this prince? 
What did he establish' 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 121 

their respective cathedrals and abbeys, for the laudable purpose 
of teaching the liberal arts and sciences; and invited into France 
' the most celebrated scholars of the age ; such as Alcuin, of \ ork, 
< Clement, and others, who were employed with considerable suc- 
cess, in the literary regeneration of Europe. 

13. The Ninth Age. The Saracen caliphs continued to pa* 
1 tronise learning, particularly the science of astronomy. This pro- 
duced a great number of proficients in that beautiful and emi- 

1 nently useful branch of knowledge. Many also applied them- 
. selves to the study of judicial astrology, while others distinguished 
> themselves in various other departments of literature. On the 
; contrary, under the Greek emperors, the liberal arts were much 
'. neglected and despised. Leo, the Isaurian, had destroyed every 

thing favorable to literature, and learned men were consigned 

to oblivion and contempt. 

14. However, towards the middle of this century we find a 
taste for literature manifest itself again among the Greeks. It 

1 was owing to the efforts of Amon, the Saracen caliph to attract 
Leo, the philosopher, to his court, that the emperor Theophilus 
discovered the treasure he possessed in that great man. He en- 
couraged his talents, and intrusted him with the charge of the 
public instruction. Bardes, who governed under the emperor 
' Michael, undertook, with the aid of Photius, to revive learning in 
1 the Eastern Empire, by establishing professors of the various sci- 
ences and polite arts, and attaching to their functions honorary 
privileges and pecuniary compensations. 

15. In the West, sacred and profane learning continued to 
flourish in the numerous schools established by Charlemagne, 

( until the dreadful disorders of succeeding reigns partially ban- 

>: ished the light of science from the kingdom. After the death of 
that illustrious monarch, his vast dominions were inherited by 
Louis the Mild, who divided them between his three sons, who 

1 seem to have inherited none of the noble qualities of their father. 

' They were continually engaged in hostilities with each other, 
while their kingdoms were rent with civil discords, and their 
provinces were inundated on every side, by the irruption of the 
Danes, Normans and Saracens. 

16. Amidst the evils that ensued, we are not surprised that ig- 
I norance again prevailed, particularly among the nobles, who, fol- 
lowing exclusively the profession of arms, had but little time to 
attend to literary pursuits, and even boasted of their want of 
knowledge, Hence we find that many of the deeds and legal 
documents of this period terminated in the following words: 
" And the aforesaid lord has declared that he did not know how 
to sign his name, owing to his being a nobleman." But while 
literature was neglected on the part of the nobility, the mcst 
strenuous efforts were made to keep alive the sacred name of sci- 

What is said of Alcnin. &c. ?— 13. What is said of the caliphs ? Of the liberal art? 
ander the Creek: emperors 7 — 14. Towards the middle of this century, what do we 
likd? What did Bardes undertake ?— 15. In the West, what is said of learning? In 
«vhat were they continually engaged ? — IG. Amidst the evils that ensued, what is said! 
Ho>» were many of the documents of this period written ? By whom were the mas' 
strenuoua efforts made? 

II 



9 



122 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

enee, and to diffuse instruction among the people, by the clergy 
and prelates of the church. By a reference to the decrees of the 
councils, during this period, it will be seen that the ecclesiastics 
were unremitting in their zeal for the extension of knowledge. 
In the council of Toul, held in 859, princes and bishops are 
earnestly recommended to establish public schools, for the pur- 
pose of teaching sacred science and polite literature. In all the 
monasteries and episcopal houses, schools were established, in which 
n, relish for study and literary acquirements was carefully preserved. 
Besides the study of the Sacred Scriptures, the students in these 
institutions were taught what was termed the seven liberal arts ; 
namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy 
and music. 

17. In England, the incursions of the Danes, and the ravage9 
of civil war, had erased almost every monument of art, and ban- 
ished from the land every trace of learning ; the monasteries 
were burned, the monks murdered or dispersed, the libraries and 
schools destroyed ; ignorance and vice necessarily ensued. Hap- 
py for the island, at this moment of its greatest depression, 
Alfred the Great was called to the throne. Having delivered 
his country from the dominion of the Danes, and driven the bar- 
barous invaders from his shores, he turned his whole attention to- 
wards repairing the evils which their ravages had caused. 

18. To effect this object, he established throughout his domi- 
nions scJiools,in which were taught all the useful branches: repaired 
the University of Oxford, invited from foreign countries, men 
eminent for their learning, encouraged architecture, and laid the 
foundation of the British navy, which for so many centuries after 
maintained the empire of the sea. To this illustrious prince, Eng- 
land is indebted for many of the valuable laws which, at present, 
form the fairest feature in her constitution. 

Although this age was not productive of many eminent scholars, 
still it has left behind it a few names that would do honor to 
literature even at this day. Lupus, Abbot of Ferrieres, a writer 
of this century, is admitted by all impartial critics to have been 
a man of profound erudition; and few ages can boast of a more 
distinguished scholar than Alfred the Great, of England. 

19. The Tenth Age. The Greek empire, during this age, was 
distracted by a series of revolts and unnatural conspiracies. The 
emperor, Romanus, was dethroned by his son Constantine ; Con- 
stantine, in his turn, was deprived of his crown and life, by his 
own ungrateful son, who, at the instigation of his wife, adminis- 
tered a cup of poison to his royal father. The parricide did not 
long enjoy the fruits of his impiety. The army declared their 
general, Nicephorus, emperor, who, after a short reign, was car- 
ried off by the hand of conspiracy, in order to make room for Zi- 
misces. This last emperor fell a victim to the treachery of his 

In the council of Toul, what was recommended ? In ihe monasteries, what were 
eotablished ? What were the Ftr.dents taught ?- 17. in Englai d. what had the incur- 
sions of the Dan ps erased ? Who was call'e'.' to 'he throne? To what did he turn hia 
attention 7 — 13. To effect this- o\ ject, \v!i it did he do ? Who was a wr.'ter of this a&e ? 
—19. What is said of the Crock empire rlu.-ing tins ng-e 7 Of Romanics? 



•THE MIDDLE AoES. 123 

thief minister, Basil, who, dreading the punishment which his 
crimes had merited, contrived the death of his sovereign. 

20. During these revolutions of th. state, literature was not 
entirely neglected ; some of the emperors gave considerable en- 
couragement to science, and invited from other countries men of 
talents to teach at Constantinople. We do not, however, find 
that the Greek empire, during the tenth century, produced any dis- 
tinguished writers. Learning was still patronised by the Saracen 
caliphs, and by the sultans, who had usurped a great part of then 
authority. Many of their learned men were employed in trans- 
lating into the Arabic tongue the writings of the ancient philoso- 
phers ; while others applied themselves with much diligence to 
the study of the translations, already set forth in the preceding 
age. 

21. Italy, during this century, was greatly distracted by civil 
dissensions, and finally re-united to the Germanic empire by Otho 
I. France was exposed to the incursions of the Normans, in 
whose favor Charles the Simple ceded a part of Neustria,which 
from them was called Normandy. Tumult and disorder continued 
to convulse the state, until Hugh Capet was raised to the throne. 
The feudal system, during this period, had risen to its greatest 
power. During the preceding century, the vassals of the crown 
had been gradually increasing in power, so that at the present 
period, we find them possessed of almost unlimited authority. 
Each nobleman had his fortress and his castle, situated on some 
commanding eminence, which overlooked the surrounding country. 
Here, secure from violence, he oppressed the people, laid all tra- 
vellers and merchants under contributions, and imposed upon them 
arbitrary tolls by way of tribute, and not unfrequently set at defi- 
ance the authority of his sovereign. 

22. In Germany, the same state of things prevailed ; the great, 
continually in arms against each other, or at war with the sove- 
reign. Nor was England more favored than the nations on the 
continent; it was either harassed by new incursions of the Danes, 
or implicated in domestic feuds. The monastries during these evil 
times were almost the only asylums of learning. Here in the silence 
of the cloister, aloof from the turmoil of the camp, the peaceful 
monks continued to cultivate a taste for science and classical lite- 
rature. This century produced several men eminent for their 
talents ; among these St. Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, and St. 
Dunstan, in England, were particularly distinguished. 

23. The Eleventh Age. In the Eastern empire, during the 
greater part of this century, treachery, poisou, and parricide, 
were the usual meaus employed in the advancement or deposition 
of an emperor. Hence we may easily form an idea of the disor- 
ders of the government, and the deplorable condition of the 
people, who were, moreover, daily exposed to the incursions of 

28. During these revolutions, what was the state of literature? By whom was 
learning still patronised? In what were their learned men employed? — 21. What is 
eaidofltily? Ot'France? Of the feudal system ? What had each nobleman ? What 
did he do?— 22. In Germany what prevailed? What is said of England '? Of the mon- 
asteries during these times? What did this century produce? — 23. What is said of 
the Eastern empire during this centurj ? 



124 THE MIDDLE AGES, 

the Bulgarians, Saracens, and Turks. The arts an«>l sciences 
were totally neglected until towards the middle of the century 
when the study of letters began again to revive. Grammar and 
philosophy were cultivated with much care, although the philoso- 
phy consisted chiefly in forming syllogisms and deducing sophis- 
tical conclusions; an exercise calculated rather to contract than 
improve the mental faculties. 

24. Literature continued to meet with patronage among the 
Saracens, who, after subjecting Persia, Syria and Palestine, 
granted protection to learned men, and founded several acade- 
mies. The extraordinary power exercised by the sovereign pontiff, 
even over temporal princes, during this and several succeeding 
centuries, is no doubt a matter of surprise to the reader at the 
present day; of this subject I will speak; more at large under the 
head of Italy ; suffice it to say at present, that this power, invested 
in the pope, although it may appear derogatory^ to the rights of 
princes, had, nevertheless, a salutary influence in correcting the 
abuses of the times, and of _ restraining the lawless passions of 
sovereigns. Fewer acts of violence were committed, the churches 
and monasteries were more respected, order and discipline better 
observed ; the sciences were cultivated in peace ; public acade« 
mies were opened for all who wished to improve ; the schools 
were crowded with students, full of noble emulation which dif- 
fused itself through all ranks and conditions of life. 

25. During the eleventh century, the method of Alcuin was 
adopted in the schools under the name of Triyium and Quad' 
rivium. The Trivium included grammar, logic and dialectics, 
while arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music, constituted 
the Quadriviurn. But as the number of scholars multiplied, the 
works of Aristotle and Avicennes, with the categories attributed 
to St. Augustin, were very generally studied in the West. The 
most remarkable event towards the close of this century was the 
commencement of the Crusades or sacred wars undertaken for 
the recovery of Palestine from the dominion of the Turks, A. D. 
1096. This century, with the latter part of the preceding, was 
distinguished for several important and useful inventions. (See 
chronological table.) 

26. The Twelfth Age. At the commencement of this cen- 
tury, anarchy and confusion reigned in the East. The new 
states which the Christians had established in Palestine were 
subjects of continual war; the sultans were constantly in the 
field, to arrest the progress of the Crusaders. The emperors of 
Constantinople, unable to repel the invasion of the Saracens, and 
jealous of the success of the Crusaders, tampered with both, without 
being able to take advantage either of their victories or defeats. 

What is said of the arts, &c. ? Of grammar? — 24. Where did literature still meet 
with patronage ? What will no douht be a subject of surprise? What is observed rw 
this power ? what is said of the sciences? Of public academies? — 25. During (he 
eleventh century, what merhod was adopted in the scnools? What did the Triv'MTfk 
include? What constituted ihe Quadrivivm? As the number of scholars multiplied, 
what was studied in the West? What was the most rcmakable event of this cen- 
tury ?— _G. At the commencement < f this century, what reigned in the East? What 
is said of the sultans? Of the emperors of Constantinople? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 125 

The state of literature, notwithstanding the unfavorable aspect 
of things, was gradually improving. In the midst of the confn- 
j sion ot war, the caliphs and sultans, being generally men of 
. learning, paid much attention to the advancement of science. 
. The schools and academies established throughout the Mussul- 
i man empire were highly flourishing. 

27. The Greeks were somewhat improved from their frequent 
intercourse with the Saracens. The emulation which had been 
excited in the AV es ^ during the preceding century, the patronage 
of princes, combined with the propagation of the religious orders 
of Citeaux, Cluni, and the Carthusians, greatly multiplied the 
number of schools and academies ; every abbey and almost every 
monastery was an institution for the diffusion of literary know- 
ledge. The art of writing was cultivated with greater applica- 
tion and success during this than at any former period ; and the 
manuscripts which have descended to the present time are stand - 
ing monuments of the perfection to which that art was carried 
during the twelfth and following centuries. The University of 
Padua, and that of Paris, was founded about the year 1180. The 
writers of this age most deserving of notice are St. Bernard, Peter, 
abbot of Cluni, Peter of Blois, and Pope Innocent HI. 

28. The Thirteenth Age. The East, at the beginning ot 
this century, was occupied by the Moguls, Saracens, and Turks, 
among whom an almost uninterrupted series of wars continued 
to rage. Gengis-khan and his successors reduced a consider- 
able portion of the Saracen and Turkish empires; while the 
princes of the West took Constantinople and established there a 
Latin emperor, whose successors swayed the Greek sceptre, until 
the middle of this age. The Greek emperors, after their restora- 
tion, were continually harassed by the Turks, who finally reduced 
a considerable portion of the Grecian provinces. 

29. In the West, Germany was convulsed by the factions of 
competitors for the empire. Otho was at length acknowledged 
by the people, and crowned by Pope Innocent III., after a solemn 
promise to protect the patrimony of the pontiff'. The emperor, 
however, on account of some disagreement with the Romans, 
proceeded to avenge himself by invading and ravaging the terri 
tories of the church. Upon this he was deposed by a council 
assembled by the pope, while the princes of Germany elected 
Frederick II. in his place. Otho was not disposed to yield with- 
out a contest, and thus involved the empire in all the horrors of 
civil war. Frederick was finally successful ; the death of his 
rival left him in quiet possession of the throne. 

30. France was either involved in hostilities with England, or 
engaged in a calamitous warfare with the Albigenses, who had 
desolated her southern provinces. _ Consequently the West was 
Still the theatre of discord and civil dissension. Science was 

Of the state of literature? Of schools, &c.?— 27. What is said of the Greeks? 
What did the emulation. &c., do? What is said of the art of writing? What univer- 
sities were founded ? W lio were writers of this ape ? — ' b. What is said of the Ea6t? 
What did the princes of the West do ?— 29. In the West, what was Germany ? What 
did the emperor do ? What was clone by the council? AVhat was the result of the 
civil war? — 30. What is said o: France ? 

IV 



126 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

still patiomsecl by the. Moguls, and iearn'mg continued to flourish 
throughout their vast empire ; while on the other hand the co«« 
quests of the Turks had greatly tended to retard it within the 
limits of their jurisdiction. Some few men of learning flourished 
among the Greeks, but most of their efforts were made in vain 
attempts to justify their schism, and to refute the writings of the 
Latin theologians. In the West, science, which had been hitherto 
chiefly confined to the abbeys and monasteries, now burst forth 
from its confinement, and enlightened by its* rays the whole face 
of Europe. The great Universities of Naples, Vienna, Sala- 
manca, Cambridge, and Lisbon, institutions of which Europe is 
proud at the present day, were founded during this century. 
Among the scholars of this age, the following were the most dis 
tinguished : Roger Bacon, an eminent English philosopher; Mat- 
thew, of Paris, an accurate English historian, also distinguished 
as an orator and a poet; the names of Albertus Magnus, St. 
Bonaventure, and St. Thomas, of Aquin, stand pre-eminent as 
ecclesiastical writers. 

31. The Fourteenth Age. The fourteenth century beheld 
the rise and progress of the savage and warlike nation of Otto- 
mans, who were destined, at a future period, to destroy the las! 
vestige of Roman power. < Hitherto the conquest of the Turks 
had been confined to Asia, but under their celebrated chief, 
Orcari, they crossed the straits of Constantinople, and carried 
their victorious arms into the plains of Europe; they took several 
important towns, and finally made the city of Adrianople the 
seat of their empire. The Greek emperors, alarmed at the pro- 
gress of the Turks, and feeling sensibly the want of support from 
the West, used the most strenuous efforts to effect the re-union 
of the Greek with the Latin church; but th^. long-settled preju- 
dice of their subjects placed an insuperable barrier to all their 
endeavors. 

32. Notwithstanding the distracted state of Christendom during 
the greater part of this century, occasioned by wars between 
England and France, Germany and Italy, and the great schism of 
the West, science continued to advance and to gain a liberal support 
in every part of Europe. 

Such is a concise view of the condition of society, and the state 
of literature during that period denominated the Middle Ages. 

33. A few of the most remarkable institutions which charac- 
terize the history of Europe and the state of society during the 
Middle Ages, were those of the Feudal System and Chivalry, the 
Crusades and Monastic Establishments. With respect to the 
three first, we will speak under their proper heads. The last, 
however may deserve a passing notice. Whatever may be our 
individual opinion with regard to the Monastic Institutions at the 
present day, all impartial historians admit that they were peculiarly 
beneficial to society during the Middle Ages. 

What is said of science in the West? What universities were founded? Who 
■were the most distinguished scholars of this age ? — 31. What did this century behold 'I 
What is said of the conquests of the Turks ? Of the Greek emperors ?— 32 What is 
said of literature during this century ? — 33. What are some of the most remarkable 
institutions, &c. ? Which deserve a passing notice ? What arc they admitted ? 



. 



SAK.ACE3 EMPIRE. 127 

'Si. In these institutions, particularly the larger monasteries and 
abbeys, schools of instruction were established, in which a taste 
for the classics and the more useful branches of study were care- 
fully preserved. In all, the monks had their various duties 
assigned them. While numbers were employed in transcribing 
; books for the use of the church and schools, others were engaged 
in teaching in the academies attached to these institutions, while 
i others again were occupied in manual labor, in attending to the 
■ duties of the farm, the garden, and the like, having at the same 
. time certain hours set apart for devotional exercises. 

35. Previous to the discovery of the art of printing, books were 
, extremely scarce, and only procured at an immense price; this 

circumstance tended materially to retard the progress of science. 
The labor of transcribing a work was great, and the process 
i tedious, hence the multiplication of Dooks was extremely slow. 
The monasteries, however, supplied in some measure this defi- 
ciency, always employing a number of their inmates in the laud- 
able work of transcribing books. They not only transcribed 
such books as were immediately used in the church and schools, 
but also carefully transcribed and preserved the writings of 
ancient authors; hence whatever we have of ancient literature, 
has been chielly transmitted to us through the medium of the 
monasteries. 

36. They served, therefore, during the Middle JZges, a twofold 
purpose, as literary institutions, where the sons of the great and 
the children of the poor shared alike the benefits of education ; 
and as a source from which books of instruction were furnished, 
supplying, in a limited manner, the place of printing establish- 
ments of more modern times. 

Like other institutions, they may have had their faults, butthey 
were rather the faults of individuals, or the age, than of the in- 
stitutions themselves. While some, under the garb of religion, 
may have entered them as a place for the enjoyment of ease and 
repose, they afforded an asylum for the poor and afflicted of every 
class. 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 

The Rise of Mahomet anism, Saracen Conquests, fyc. 

1. The Saracens were a people who inhabited the north-westem 
part of Arabia ; like the other tribes of the country, they traced 
their descent from Ishmael, and professed a mixed religion, made 
up of Judaism and idolatry. They had but little intercourse with 
the neighboring nations, except when they occasionally sold 

34. In these institutions, what were established? What were the duties of the 
monks? — .35. Previous to the discovery of printing what were source? What did the 
monasteries supply? What books did they transcribe ?— 36. W.'.at did they serve! 
Like other institutions, what had they? 

I What were the Saracens ? What had they ? 



128 SARACEN EMPIltK, 

their services, as mercenaries, to those who paid them the most 
liberal reward, and were usually noted for their courage and 
bravery. Many of the Christian sects, in order to avoid perse- 
cution, had taken refuge in Arabia, and towards the end of the 
sixth century, Christianity prevailed in some parts of the country, 

2. Such was the state of Arabia when Mahomet or Mohammed, 
the famous impostor, appeared. He was a native of Mecca, and 
was born about the year 570. At the age of forty, he assumed 
the quality of a prophet, and pretended that he had received a 
divine commission to restore the Jewish and Christian religions, 
which he maintained had greatly fallen from their primitive 
purity. Upon this foundation he established his system of reli- 
gion, which consisted of a compound of Judaism, Christianity, 
and of his own fanciful notions. Being subject to fits of epilepsy, 
he attributed them to the visits of the Archangel Gabriel, by 
whom he pretended he was taught, but whose presence he was 
unable to bear without trances and convulsions. 

3. As Mahomet was a man of no education, even unable to i 
read or write, the Koran, or Alcoran, the book which contains 
the principles of his doctrine, was compiled with the assistance i 
of a Jewish Rabbin, and a Nestorlan monk. The Koran consists i 
chiefly of some beautiful sentences taken from Holy Writ, with i 
a strange medley of the most absurd ideas, without connection or ■ 
design, though expressed in a lofty and animated style. The two » 
leading principles of his religion were, that " There is but one i 
God, and Mahomet is his prophet." He taught that others, at I 
various times, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, had I 
been divinely commissioned to teach mankind, but that he him- - 
self was the last and the greatest of the prophets. 

4. He propagated his religion by the sword, and stimulated the i 
courage of his followers by the promise of a martyr's crown in a i 
paradise of delights, to every one who should fall in battle. It I 
was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine, that " to fight for the : 
faith was an act of obedience to God." Hence the Mahometans i 
styled their fierce and bloody ravages Sacred Wars. They termed I 
their religion Islam or Islamism, and called themselves Mussul- • 
mans or Moslems, that is, true believers. 

Mahomet, at the commencement of his efforts, had but little e 
success in making proselytes. His first converts were his wife 
Kadija, his slave Zeid, his father-in-law Abubeker, and his cousin, 
the famous Ali. These, with ten others, were all whom he hail i 
persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his mission, at the expira- 
tion of three years. 

5. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, he was 
obliged to retire in order to save his life ; he fled, in disguise, to 
Medina. This event, called the Hegira, or the Flight, forms the 

What is said of the Christian sects? — 2. When and where was Mahomet born ! 
What did ho pretend? Bei'njr subject to fits, to what did he attribute them' — 3. Ifow 
was the Koran compiled ? Of what does the Koran chiefly consist ? What were the 
two leading principles of his religion? What did he teach? — 4. How did he propa- 
gate his religion? What was inculcated as a fundamental principle ? What were 
ais ravages called 7 What did they term themselves ? Who were his'first converts! 

5. What obliged him to retire ? 'What is this event called ? 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 129 

i Mahometan era, corresponding to A. D. G22. He was received 
at Medina in triumph, and there .assumed the sacerdotal and 
. regal office. Shortly after this, he placed himself at the head of 
an army of his followers, and commenced to propagate his reli- 
gion, according to his maxim, by the sword. He first attacked 
. the caravans which passed through Arabia, for the purpose of 
j trade, and thus enriched his soldiers with the booty. Encouraged 
by this success, he took the city of Mecca, which he entered in 
i triumph, about the year 629. From this period until his death, 
, he was constantly in the held ; he fought in person nine battles, 
I subdued all Arabia, extended his conquest to Syria, and after a 
career of victory, died at Medina, at the age of sixty-three, ten 
years after his flight from Mecca to that city. 

6. One of the principal causes of the success which attended 
the arms of Mahomet, was the inflexible severity he exercised to- 
wards the vanquished. It was his usual practice to propose to 
those whom he threatened with war, three conditions, namely, 
the adoption of his religious system^ the payment of a tribute, or 
an appeal to the sword. If they chose the latter, no quarter was 
granted to them; only the women, the children, and aged persons 
were spared, and reduced to slavery. Another cause of his suc- 
cess was the absolute assurance of future bliss which he held out 
to his followers, whereby they were rendered equally happy, 
either to conquer or to die in the field of battle, for the propaga- 
tion of their religion. 

7. Mahomet was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abubeker, a 
man of great repute among the Arabs; he is styled the first 
caliph, a title which signifies in Arabic, successor or vicar. He, 
pursuing a career of conquest similar to that of his predecessor, 
invaded Syria, and took the cities of Bostra, Palmyra, and Da 
mascus; the latter city was taken after a siege of six months, 
and most of its inhabitants inhumanly put to the sword by order 
of Kaled, who was at that time the commander of the Saracen 
forces. Abubeker died in the third year of his reign, and the 
sixty-third of his age, having previously named Omar his suc- 
cessor. 

8. Omar, aided by the celebrated general, Obediah, in the 
course of one campaign subdued Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, 
and Chaldea; and in a second, reduced the whole of Persia. 
His army, under Amrou, took the city of Alexandria and sub- 
dued Egypt. Amrou being requested to spare the Alexandrian 
library, which at that time contained upwards of five hundred 
thousand volumes, wrote to the caliph for directions respecting 

he books. Omar answered, that if they agreed with the Koran 
they were useless, and if they differed from it they were danger- 
ous ; in either case, they were to be destroyed. The books were 

How was he received at Medina? Shortly after this, what did lie do? How m»^/ 
battles did he fijht? Where and when did he die ? — 6. What is one of the causes of 
his success? What were the three conditions he proposed to those whom he threat- 
ened with war? What was another cause of his success? — 7. By whom was Ma 
hornet succeeded ? What did he invade? — S. Whai did Omar subdue' W T hat city 
was taken? What number of volumes was in the Alexandrian library? What cvaa 
Omar's answers respecting it? What was done with the books ? 



130 SARACEN EMPIRE. 

accordingly distributed throughout the city, and served, it is 
said, to warm the public baths For six months. 

9. Omar, during a reign of ten years, reduced upwards of 
thirty thousand cities and villages to his dominion, and is said to 
have demolished four thousand Christian churches, and to have 
erected fourteen hundred mosques for the Mahometan worship 
lie was finally assassinated at Medina, in 644, by a Persian 
slave, whose complaints against his master he had refused to hear. 
Othman was immediately chosen his successor, who added Bac- 
triana and a part of Tartarv to the dominion of the caliphs. On 
his death, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was chosen to sue 
ceed him. Ali is regarded as one of the bravest and most virtuou 
of the caliphs; his reign was illustrious, although it lasted onl 
five years. In the space of less than half a century, the Sarace 
dominions were more extensive than what remained of the Ro- 
man empire ; and in one hundred years from the flight of Maho 
met from Mecca to Medina, the empire of his successors extended 
from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia 
Minor, Arabia, Egypt, north of Africa, and Spain. 

10. During the reign of Ali, a schism took place among the 
followers of Mahomet, which continues to divide them to the pre- 
sent time. Abubeker, Omar, and Othman are regarded ;.3 
usurpers by the partisans of Ali, and are branded by the name 
of Shyites, or schismatics. On the other hand, these three caliphs 
are held in the greatest veneration by the opponents of Ali, who 
style themselves Sonnites, because they follow the traditions of 
their Mahometan ancestors, while the Shyites acknowledge the 
Koran only. The Persians are of the sect of Ali ; the Turks are 
the Sonnites and Ottomans, or the disciples of Othman. Between 
the two parties, a mutual hatred and animosity still exists. 

11. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman empire from Mecca 
to Cufa, on the Euphrates, and during the year 768 it was re- 
moved by Almanzor to Bagdad, which became the most illus 
trious caliphate in the history of the Saracens. Next to Bagdad, 
the other most distinguished caliphate was that of Cordova, in 
Spain. Almanzor, who built the city of Bagdad, and transferred 
to it the seat of the Saracen empire, was a liberal patron of learn 
ing and science, and the first caliph who introduced the cultiva- 
tion of them among the Saracens. The reign of Haroun al 
Raschid, the twenty-fifth caliph, who was contemporary with 
Charlemagne, was the most illustrious in the whole dynasty, and 
is regarded as the Augustan age of Arabic literature. This prince 
distinguished himself by his valor and generosity, also by ha 
equitable government and his patronage of learned men. Schooi3 
at tliis period were established in the principal towns. The 
sciences chiefly cultivated were medicine, geometry, and astro* 
nomy ; also poetry and works of fiction commanded some attention. 

9. During his reign, how many cities did he reduce? How many churches did 
he demolish ? What was his end? Who succeeded him? In less than half a cen- 
tury, what is said of the Saracen dominions?— 10. During the reign of Ali, what took 
place ? Who are regarded as usurpers ? Of what sect are the Persians ? The 
Turks ?— 11. AVhat did Ali do ? What is said of Almanzor ? Of the reign of Raschid 1 
Of schools at this period ? v 



FEUDAL SYSTEM. 131 

12. From the time of the removal of the seat of government to 
Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. Many chiefs 
of the interior provinces asserted their independence, and only 
regarded the caliph as the head of their religion. As the con- 
quests of the Saracens extended, their states became disunited. 
Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and India had at an early period their 
separate sovereigns, who continued to regard the caliphs of Bag- 
dad as the successors of the prophet, although they acknowledged 
in them no temporal jurisdiction. Thirty-seven caliphs of the 
house of Abbas reigned in succession. For four hundred and 
ninety years, Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Saracer 
empire, during which time it sustained several obstinate sieges, 
and was the seat of various revolutions. 

13. In the six hundred and fifty-sixth year of the Hegira, A. D. 
1258, Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of the cele- 
brated Genghis Khan. Al Mostasem, the last of the caliphs, was 
put to death, the caliphate abolished, and the Saracen empire 
terminated. The manner in which Al Mostasem was put to 
death was somewhat singular. He had been noted for his pride 
and ostentation ; when he appeared in public he usually wore a 
veil to conceal his face from the people, whom he considered as 
unworthy to look upon him. After the taking of the city, Hula- 
ku, with the design of punishing his pride, ordered the wretched 
caliph to be confined in a leather bag and to be dragged through 
the streets till he expired. At the present time, the Saracens, 
once so^ powerful, possess little other territory than the deserts 
of Arabia, and are usually known by the name of Arabs 



FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

1. The Feudal System had its origin among the Goths, Van 
dais, Lombards, and other barbarous nations that overrun the 
continent of Europe on the decline of the Roman empire. It was 
adopted in France during the reign of Charlemagne, and is gen- 
erally supposed to have been introduced into England by Wil- 
liam the Conqueror. 

2. When the northern barbarians had overrun the Roman em- 
pire, the conquered provinces were divided by lot among the dif- 
ferent chieftains, without any other obligation existing between 
them than that of uniting their forces in case of war for their 
mutual defence. But the fundamental principles of the Feudal 
System were established in the following order: The king or 
chief who led his respective tribes to conquest, retained for him- 

Yi. What is said of many of the interior provinces? What had Spain, &c, at an 
early period? How long was Bagdad the capital? — 13. When and by whom was 
Bagdad taker? Relate the mannefin which Al Mostasem was put to death. At 
present, what is said of the Saracens? 

1 Where had the Feudal System its origin? When was it adopted in France,' 
When in England? — 2 in what order were the principles established ? 



132 THE CRUSADES. 

self by far the largest share of the conquered territory, dividing 
the remaining portion of the land among his followers according 
to their rank, who bound themselves to render him merely mili- 
tary services. The example of the king was imitated by his 
nobles, who, under similar conditions, granted portions of their 
estates to their dependents. The granter was called lord, aud 
those to whom the grant was made were styled feudatories or 
vassals. 

3. The feudal government, though well calculated for defence. 
was nevertheless very defective in its provisions for the internal 
order of society. The great barons or lords possessed extensive 
tracts of country, erected on them fortified castles in places diffi- 
cult of access, oppressed the people, slighted the civil authorities, 
and frequently set their sovereigns at defiance. 

4. A kingdom resembled a number of confederate states under 
one common head; the barons or lords acknowledging a species 
of allegiance to their sovereign, yet when obedience was retused, 
it could only be enforced by an appeal to arms. But the great 
mass of the people who cultivated the land were called serfs or 
villains, and lived in the most servile condition. They were not 

f permitted to bear arms, nor suffered to leave the estates of their 
ords. As each of the feudal lords was independent within the 
limits of his own immediate possessions, and as the thread of f 
unity existing between them was at all times feeble, it was natu 
ral to suppose that frequent disputes and sanguinary contests 
were the consequence. Such in reality was the case; hence we 
find that Europe, during the existence of the Feudal System, 
exhibited an almost uninterrupted scene of anarchy, turbulence, 
and destructive warfare. 

5. Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline of the 
Feudal System were the Crusades, the extension of commerce 
the increase and distribution of wealth and knowledge, and lastly, 
the change of warfare which followed the invention of gunpowder. 
It still exists in a partial degree in some parts of Europe, parti- 
cularly in Russia, Poland, and in some portions of Germany. 



THE CRUSADES. 

1. The Crusades were military expeditions undertaken by the 
Christians of Europe for the purpose of delivering the Holy Land, 
and particularly the sepulchre of our Saviour, from the oppressive 
dominion of the Turks. As early as the year 637, Jerusalem fell 
into the hands of the Saracens, who, for political reasons, permit- 

W^iat was the grantor called? And those to whom the grant was made?— 3. What 
is paid of the feudal government? Of the great barons? — t. What did a kingdom re- 
semble? What is said of the people? As each lord was independent, &c, what was 
natural to suppose? — 5. What are some of the causes assigned for its decline? \Vl,i 
iocs it exist in a partial degree ? 

1 What were the Crusades? In the vear C37, what took place » 






THE CRUSADES. 133 

ted the Christians to visit the city. In 1065 the Seljukian Turks, 
la wild and ferocious tribe of Tartars, obtained posession of tho 
aoly city; from this period the Christian inhabitants were exposed 
;o every species of outrage and insult. The Christians of Europe, 
'ictuated by motives of religion, were often induced to visit those 
Slaces hallowed by the footsteps and sanctified by the sufferings of 

he Saviour of man. But if, after travelling thousands of miles, 
'imidst dangers and hardships, they reached Palestine, they were 
only allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem on the payment of a 
pertain sum of money, and if they succeeded in gaining admittance, 
.hey were exposed, like other Christian inhabitants, to all the 
•igors of Mahometan cruelty ; it is even stated by creditable his- 
torians, that some were loaded with chaius and compelled to draw 
i cart or plough, while others were condemned to an ignominious 
leath. 

1 2. Such was the condition of Palestine, when Peter, a native 
: )f Amiens, in France, surnamed the Hermit, on account of his 
retired life, undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Moved at the 
Wlit of the cruel oppression which weighed upon the Christians 
Sf Asia, he prevailed upon Simon, the venerable patriarch of 
Jerusalem, to write to the pope and to the princes of Europe, for 
:he purpose of soliciting their aid in arresting the cruelty of the 
[Turks exeicised against their brethren in the East, offering him- 
self to be the bearer of these letters. The patriarch having as 
sented to this measure, Peter immediately returned to Europe 
ind presented himself before Pope Urban II. He was kindly 
received by the pontiff, who readily entered into his views, and 
commissioned him to go forth and preach in favor of the suffer- 
ing Christians in Palestine, and the deliverance of Jerusalem from 
the hands of the Infidels. 

; 3. Peter, who was eminently qualified for this important office, 
[travelled through Italy, France, and other countries, and by his 
[pathetic and glowing eloquence, enkindled in the breasts of his 
inearers the same zeal that animated his own. Finally, the sub- 
ject was brought before a council held at Placeniia, and after- 
wards before the council at Clermont, in France, towards the 
close of the year 1095. After Peter had spoken on the subject 
t>t the holy war with his usual ardor, the pope himself addressed 
the assembled bishops and princes in an eloquent and animated 
discourse, which he concluded in the following words: " Go now 
and take the sword of the Maccabees, protect the people of God 
and defend your persecuted brethren against the implacable ene- 
mies of the Christian name. Mussulman impiety has overspread 
ithe fairest regions of Asia; Ephesus, Nice, and Antioch have be- 
come Mahometan cities; the barbarous hordes of the Turks have 
'planted their colors on the very shores of the Hellespont, hence 
they threaten war to all the states of Christendom. Unless you 

_ And in 10C>? From this period, wbat is said? What did the Christians of Europe 
do? After travelling thousands of miles, what is said of them 7 What is stated? — 
2. Who now undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem? I\ r oved at the sight of the oppres- 
sion, what did Peter do? How was he received by the pontiff? What commission did 
tie receive?— 3. What is said of Peter ? Where was the subject firaliy brought. 
Alter Petei had spoken, who addressed the assembly ? How did he cojicl'^de? 

12 



f 



134 THE CRUSADES. 

oppose a mighty barrier to their triumphant course, how can 
Europe be saved from invasion?" 

4. At the coDclusion of this discourse the -whole assembly 
exclaimed, "It is the will of God," and hastened to enroll their 
names for the sacred expedition. As a mark of their engagement, 
it was proposed that a cross of red material should be worn on 
the right shoulder, and from this circumstance the name of the 
Crusade is derived. Such were the views entertained by the first 
crusaders, and such were the circumstances that called the Crusades 
into being. 

5. The First Crusade. The enthusiasm which had manifested 
itself at the council at Clermont, was soon diffused throughout 
every part of Christendom ; thousands from every part of Europe 
hastened to enlist under the banner of the cross. Domestic quar- 
rels and private animosities were buried in oblivion ; the sovereign 
and the noble, the prince and the peasant, animated alike with a 
kindred feeling, began to prepare for their departure to the East. 

6. Among the princes who .engaged in the first Crusade, the 
following were the most conspicuous: Raymond, count of Tou- 
louse ; Robert, Duke of Normandy, brother to the king of Eng. 
land ; Hugh the Great, count of Yermandois, and brother to the 
king of France ; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Godfrey of Buillon, 
duke of Lorraine, and various persons of distinguished rank. 
Among these, Godfrey of Buiilon, equally eminent for his amiable 
virtues and extraordinary valor, held the most prominent place, 
although it does not appear that he was invested with the chief 
command. 

7. Early in the spring of 1096, the army of the Crusaders, 
amounting, according to some authors, to more than seven hun- 
dred thousand persons, commenced their march towards the East, 
in two different directions. The first division of this vast multi- 
tude, under the command of Peter the Hermit, being destitute of 
that subordination and discipline so requisite in large armies, met, 
in general, with a disastrous fate. Many of them were slain on 
their march through Hungary and Bulgaria, by the inhabitants, 
whose attacks they had provoked by the outrages they committed ; 
those who succeeded in reaching Asia, were met by sultan Solyman, 
on the plains of Nice, and almost entirely annihilated before they 
came in sight of Jerusalem. 

8. 'ihe second division under the command of able and experi- 
enced officers, such as Godfrey and Baldwin, his brother, acted 
with more prudence and arrived safe at Constantinople. The 
Greek emperor Alexis, alarmed at the multitude of warriors that 
surrounded his capital, lost no time in facilitating their departure. 
He treated the leaders of the Crusaders with every courtesy, and 
concluded a treaty with them, by which they agreed to conquer in 

4. At the conclusion of the discourse -what was said ? From what is the word Cru- 
sade derived ? — 5. What is said of the enthusiasm of the Council of Clermont ? Ot do- 
mestic quarrels? Of the sovereigns? G. in the first Crusade, who wc:e the most 
conspicuous princes ? Who held tne most prominent place ?— 7. What was done early 
in the spring of 1G90 ? What is said of the first (iivision ? Where were many of them 
slain ? 8. What is said of the second division ? Of the Greek emperor ? How did 
he treat the leaders ? 



THE CRUSADES. 135 

his name, and restore those cities which had formerly belonged 
to his empire, on condition that he should aid them in the conquest 
of the Holy Land ; he then gave orders that his vessels should be 
prepared without delay, to convey them across the Bosphorus to 
the Asiatic coast. 

9. The Christian army, which amounted to about six hundred 
thousand infantry, and one hundred thousand cavalry, com- 
menced its march towards Nice, a city in Bithynia, to which 
they laid siege. Nice, reduced to the last extremiry, was on the 
point of yielding to the Crusaders, when i\m Greek emperor, by 
private embassies, prevailed on the inhabitants to surrender to 
him, rather than to the Latins. This duplicity on the part of Alexis 
highlv displeased the Crusaders, and from the little inclination 
manifested by the Greek monarch towards fulfilling his engage- 
ments, the Latin lords thought themselves no longer bound by the 
treat}'. After the reduction of Nice, they proceeded eastward, 
conquered Edessa, defeated an army of six hundred thousand 
Saracens, near Durylseum, in Phrygia, took Antioch, where they 
were reduced to the utmost distress by famine, and finally ad- 
vanced to Jerusalem, which they took after a siege of forty days. 

10. Dreadful was the scene that followed the first transports 
of victory. The Crusaders, exasperated by their long suffering, 
and by the obstinate resistance of the Saracens, and being proba- 
bly.afraid of new dangers, put to the sword nearly all the garri- 
son and inhabitants of Jerusalem. The streets, the mosques and 
citadel, were all filled with blood. After this, the attention of 
the princes was directed towards the defence of the recently con- 
quered city. The heroic and generous Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, 
who had abstained from all the carnage that followed the taking 
of the city, was chosen king by unanimous consent. He accepted 
the appointment with diffidence, but constantly refused the dia- 
dem and other insignia of royalty, saying that he could never con- 
sent to wear a crown of gold, where the Saviour of the world had 
worn a crown of thorns. 

11. Scarcely was he proclaimed king, when the approach of an 
army of four hundred thousand Saracens threatened the destruc- 
tion of the kingdom. With about twenty thousand followers, 
Godfrey sallied forth to meet this powerful host. The two armies 
met on the plains of Ascalon, and notwithstanding the disparity 
of numbers, the Saracens suffered a most disastrous defeat, and 
Godfrey returned in triumph to Jerusalem. 

12. The Crusaders having divided Palestine and Syria into 
four states, and seeing the object of their expedition accomplished, 
began to think of returning to Europe ; but as they withdrew their 
torces, the Turks gradually recovered their power. Godfrey, 

What orders did lie g:* r e? — 0. What was now the amount of the Christian army! 
When Nice was on the point of yielding, what did the Greek emperor do ? What was 
the effect of this duplicity? After the reduction of Nice, where did they pioceed. and 
what did they do ? — 10. After taking Jerusalem what did the Crusaders do? After 
this, to what was their attention directed? Who was chosen king? What did he 
refuse, and what did he say ?— 11. AVhat threatened the destruction of the kingdom ? 
What did Godfrey do? Where did the two armies meet, and what was the issue of 
the battle'— 12. Of what did the Crusaders now begin to thirk? 



136 THE CRUSADES. 

after enjoying the regal dignity for the short space of one year, 
also returned to Europe, and was succeeded in the kingdom of Je- 
rusalem by his brother, Baldwin I. 

13. After the death of Baldwin II., in 1130, jealousy and violent 
dissensions began to prevail among the princes in the kingdom of 
Jerusalem, and from this period its prosperity began rapidly 
to decline. The Saracens taking advantage of these disorders, 
renewed their attacks, took Edessa, and threatened the entire 
destruction of the Christian kingdom in the East. Surrounded 
by these calamities, the Christians of Palestine found themselves 
constrained to the necessity of soliciting aid from the princes of 
Europe ; this circumstance gave rise to the second Crusade. 

14. The Second Crusade. Immediately after the arrival of the 
deputies, who had been sent from Syria, for the purpose of obtain- 
ing assistance from Europe, a second Crusade was preached, under 
the direction of Pope Eugenius III., by St. Bernard, the learned 
and eloquent abbot of Clairvaux, A. D. 1147. 

15. Louis VII., of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, with 
three hundred thousand of their subjects, assumed the cross and 
began to prepare for an expedition to the East. Conrad, who 
proceeded in advance of the French monarch, was defeated by the 
Turks near Iconium, and Louis himself suffered a signal over- 
throw near the city of Laodicea, in Phrygia, with the loss of the 
flower of his army. After these disasters, the two monarchs suc- 
ceeded in reaching Palestine, and having arrived at Jerusalem, 
they summoned all the Latin princes of Asia to a council, where iti 
was determined to abandon the design of re-conquering Edessa, 
which had been the first object of the Crusade, and- to make one 
united effort against Damascus. After their operations had been 
carried on for some time with every appearance of success, their de- 
signs were suddenly frustrated by a violent disease, that broke outi 
in the Christian camp ; the siege was consequently abandoned. 
Louis and Conrad, disgusted at the conduct of the Latin princes in 
Asia, left them to their own wretched condition, and took their de-> 
parture for Europe. Thus terminated the second Crusade, with 
immense loss to the West, without having produced the slightest: 
advantage to the Christians of the East. 

16. The illustrious Saladin, who, about the year 1174, had 
raised himself to the sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, Syria and 
Persia, formed the design of re-conquering Palestine from the 
Christians. He defeated their army in the battle of Tiberias, and 
laid siege to Jerusalem, which was forced to surrender by capi- 
tulation, the Christian inhabitants being permitted to depart on 
the payment of a certain sum of money. Thus again, the Holy 
City fell into the hands of the Saracens, eighty-eight years after 
it had been conquered by the first Crusaders, A. D. 1187. 

What is said of Godfrey ?— 13. After the death of Baldwin, what took place ? What 
did tho Saracens do? What did the Christians find themselves constrained to do?— 
14. After the arrival of the deputies in Europe, what was done? — 15. What princes 
assumed the cross 1 What happened to Conrad ? Louis ? What broke out in the Chris- 
tian camp? What did Louis and Conrad finallydo ?— 16. What is said of Saladin 1 ? 
What did he defeat ? How long had the Holy City remained in possession of the 
Christians ? 



THE CRUSADES. 131 

17. The Third Crusade. When the intelligence of the fate 
of Jerusalem reached Europe, the deepest affliction pervaded all 
ranks of the people. The venerable pontiff, Urban III., was so af- 
fected at the news, that he died of a broken heart. This, how- 
ever, was soon succeeded by a desire to retrieve the loss sustained 
by the Christians in the East. The most illustrious morarchs, 
reigning at that time in Europe, were Philip Augustus of 
France, Henry II. of England, and Frederic I. of Germany, 
These three sovereigns, with the principal lords of their respec- 
tive dominions, assumed the cross, and began to make prepara- 
tion to enter on a third Crusade. 

18. Frederic, at the head of an army of one hundred and fifty 
thousand men, was the first of the three monarchs that com- 
menced his march towards the East. Victory and success attend- 
ed his arms whenever he advanced, until an unfortunate circum- 
stance frustrated his brightest hopes. Having crossed into Asia 
Minor, and passed the defiles of Mount Taurus, the German 
monarch proceeded at the head of his army, along the banks of 
the Cydnus, in which he was accidentally drowned while bathing 
in the river. In the interval, Henry II. of England died, and 
was succeeded by his son Richard, su roamed Caur de Lion, or 
the Lion-hearted, on account of his extraordinary valor. To the 
adventurous and military spirit of Richard, the Crusades pre- 
sented an irresistible attraction ; after making the necessary pre- 
parations, he joined Philip Augustus of France, and embarked 
on an expedition to the Holy Land. 

19. The two monarchs, in conjunction, took Ptolemais; but 
unhappily a misunderstanding between them prevented their 
further action in concert; in consequence of this, Philip, leaving a 
part of his forces in Palestine, returned to France. Richard hav- 
ing been left to the sole command, ably sustained the contest 
against the sultan Saladin, whom he signally defeated in the 
memorable battle near Ascalon. The feats of arms displayed by 
Richard on this, and other occasions, more resemble the achieve- 
ments of a hero of romance, than the deeds of a prince of authentic 
history. On one occasion, it is related, that with one stroke of his 
sword he severed the head, right shoulder, and arm, from the 
body of a Saracen chief; on another, he threw himself with so 
much ardor into the thickest of the contest, that for some mo- 
ments he disappeared amidst the host of his enemies ; when he 
returned, his horse was covered with blood, and so numerous 
were the darts and arrows, fastened in his shield and dress, that 
according to an ocular witness, he resembled a cushion covered 
with needles. 

2D. His army being at length reduced by famine and fatigue, 
the English monarch began to think of returning to Europe. 
Accordingly, having concluded a truce foi three years and eight 

17. When this intelligence reached Europe, what is said? Who were the most il- 
lustrious sovereigns at this time in Europe ? What did they do ?— 1 8. What is said of 
Frederick? What was his end? What is said of Richard?— 19. What is said of the 
two monarchs? Being left to the sole command, what did Richard do? What is said 
of his feats of uims? On one occasion what is said of him? — 20. What did he 
conclude ? 

12* 



138 THE CRUSADES. 

months with Saladm, on terms advantageous to the Christians, 
he took his departure for his own dominions. The vessel in 
which he sailed being wrecked on the coast of the Adriatic sea, 
Richard resolved to pursue Ins course by land; but as he passed 
through Germany with only a few attendants, he fell into the 
hands of the emperor Henry IV., by whom he was retained a 
prisoner until he was ransomed by his subjects, who paid for hi? 
release the sum of £300,000; he finally reached his own domi- 
nions after an absence of four years. 

Such was the result of the third Crusade; although it did not 
terminate in the recovery of the holy city, still it led to the con- 
quest of the island of Cyprus, and the surrender ol Acre, a town 
of considerable importance to the Christians. 

21. The Fourth Crusade. A fourth Crusade was undertaken 
about the year 1195, in which Henry IV., emperor of Germany, 
bore the most distinguished part; but his death, which happened 
before he reached Palestine, and the unfortunate quarrels among 
the other leaders,' frustrated the design of recovering the Holy 
Land. 

22. The Fifth Crusade. About the close of the twelfth cen 
tury, during the pontificate of Pope Innocent III., a fifth Crusade 
was undertaken by Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, and Bald- 
win, earl of Flanders. Having made the necessary preparations, 
they collected their forces at Zora, a city in Dalmatia, for the 
purpose of transporting them to Palestine by sea. But before 
their departure from this place, Alexius, the son of Isaac, the 
Greek emperor, arrived at the camp, bearing the intelligence that 
his father had lately been dethroned and inhumanly deprived ol 
his sight, and was then in the hands of the usurper of his crown; 
at the same time pledging himself, in the most solemn manner, 
to aid the Crusaders in the recovery of the Holy Land, to main- 
tain during his life five hundred knights for its defence, and offer- 
ing, moreover, the payment of a considerable sum of money, il 
they, on their part, would lend assistance in expelling the usur 
per and in restoring his father to the throne. 

23. After some deliberation, the Crusaders accepted his pro- 
posals; and sailing immediately from Zora, they directed their 
course to Constantinople, which they took after a siege^ of ten 
days. The usurper made his escape; the old emperor being re- 
leased from prison and restored to his throne, immediately rati- 
fied the engagements made by his son to the Latins. But scarcely 
had the* Crusaders departed on their march towards Palestine, 
when a sudden revolution in the city_ obliged them to return. 
The emperor and his son Alexius fell victims to the intrigues and 
perfidy of one of their courtiers, surnamed Murzuphlis, who 
placed himself upon the throne. 

24. As soon as the news of this murder and usurpation reached 

Wr.at is said of the vessel ? "What happened to him ar he passed through Germany? 
What was paid for his ransom ? — '21 . When was the fourtb Crusade undertaken ? Who 
bore a distinguished part? — 22. When was the fifth CrusacTe undertaken ? Where did 
they collect their forces? Before their departure, what took place? What did Alexius 
pledge himself to do? — 23. After some deliberation, what did the Crusaders do? What 
is said of the old emperor? What happened to the emprror and Alexius? 



THE CRUSADES. 139 

the camp of the Crusaders, they resolved to avenge the death of 
the unfortunate princes, their allies and benefactors. Marching 
back to Constantinople, they took the ciiy alter a furious assault, 
ithough it was defended by upwards of two hundred thousand 
men, and contained a population of about one million of inhabit- 
ants. 

Having thus a second time, in the short space of a few months, 
conquered the great capital of the East, the Latins proceeded to 
elect an emperor from their own body. The choice fell upon 
Baldwin, count of Flanders, who was accordingly invested with 
the ensigns of royalty, and quietly ascended the imperial throne, 
A. 1). 1204. 

25. Here terminated the efforts of the Crusaders; satisfied with 
this splendid acquisition, they attempted nothing further against 
I he Saracens. Such were the circumstances that led to the esta- 
blishment of the Latin empire at Constantinople, few events on 
the page of history are more curious and interesting than this 
singular revolution. It was destined, however, to be of short 
duration; after a precarious existence of fifty-seven years, it again 
fell under the dominion of the Greeks. 

26. The Sixth Crusade. The last expedition having failed to 
accomplish the object for which it was designed, namely the re- 
covery of the Holy Land, a sixth Crusade was shortly afterwards 
undertaken. Among those who bore a distinguished part in this 
expedition was John of Brienne, a French nobleman, who at the 
head of one hundred thousand men, made a descent upon Egypt, 
with a design of destroying the power of the sultan at the seat 
of his government. He took Damietta, but owing to subsequent 
disasters, particularly the inundation of the Nile, he was finally 
compelled to abandon his conquests and to evacuate Egypt, A. D 
1221. 

27. About the same period, the famous Frederic IT., emperor 
of Germany, led an army into Palestine and obtained by treaty 
from the sultan the restoration of Jerusalem; but so little precau- 
tion did he take to defend it, that it shortly fell a^ain into the 
hands of the infidels. Palestine was afterwards visited by seve- 
ral other princes of Europe, without being able to effect little 
more than to conclude a treaty of peace. After the departure 
of Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to the king of England, a 
sudden irruption of fierce barbarians from Korazan laid waste 
the Holy Land, and left Palestine in the most deplorable condi 
lion. • 

28. The Seventh and Eighth Crusades. At this period, A. D 
12 14, France was under the mild administration of St. Louis IX., 
a prince equally distinguished for his heroic fortitude and for all 
the more amiable virtues that adorn the Christian heart. The 
deplorable state of Palestine deeply afflicted his generous soul, 

34. As soon as this news reached their camp, what did the Crusaders do? Having 
thus conquered the capital of the Easl. to what did they proceed? On whom did the 
choice fall ?— 25. Satisfied, &c.,what did they attempt? How long did the empire last? 
-20. What was shortly afterwards undertaken? Who was the most distinguished! 
What city did he take'?— 27. What did Frederick II. do and obtain ■ After the depar- 
lure of Richard, what took place?— 23. At this period, who leig'.icd in France? 



140 THE CRUSADES 

and on the recovery from a dangerous illness he resolved to 
assume the cross, and by his exhortations induced many of his 
nobles to imitate his example. After four years' preparation he 
set out on the expedition, accompanied by his queen, his three 
brothers, and all the knights of France. He began the enterprise 
by invading Egypt, and after losing one-half of his numerous 
army by contagious diseases, he was defeated and taken prisoner 
by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself and his army he 
proceeded to Palestine, where he remained for several years in 
endeavouring to secure the welfare of the Christian colonies, by 
repairing the fortifications of the towns which yet remained in 
their possession. The death of his mother, to whom he had in- 
trusted the government during his absence, obliged him to return 
to France. 

29. About thirteen years after his return from his first Crusade, 
Louis was induced to undertake a second. Having provided for 
the government of his kingdom in his absence, he embarked with 
sixty^ thousand chosen troops, landed in Africa, and laid siege to 
Tunis. Before any thing of importance could be effected, a I 
raging pestilence carried off one-half of his flourishing army, the 
king himself being numbered among its victims. This terminated 
the last of the Crusades, A. D. 1272. 

30. The effects of the Crusades. The period during which 
the Crusades continued, has been styled by some historians, " the ! 
heroic age of Christianity." No other military enterprise evei i 
claimed ue attention of the Christian world so long and so uni- 
versally as the Crusades. For nearly two centuries Europe con- 
tinued to send forth her legions, to conquer or die upon the plains i 
of Asia. The two most powerful agents that can operate upon i 
the human mind, combined to call them into being; namely, zeal I 
for religion and sympathy for suffering humanity. 

31. To see the land of Palestine, so hallowed by all the associa- 
tions dearest to the Christian heart, that land sanctified by the foot- 
steps and watered by the tears and blood of the Son of God, that I 
land where the first light of Christianity dawned, trodden down i 
by the footsteps of infidelity; to see that Calvary where died the ! 
Redeemer of man, that sepulchre in which he was laid polluted I 
and defiled by Mussulman impiety, is even at this distant day 
capable of producing the deepest emotions. To deliver this land ! 
from the power of the infidels, who only held it by the right of 
conquest, was at that period deemed not only a lawful, but even 

a holy and sacred duty. 

32. On the other hand, the cruelties exercised against the de 
fence-ess Christians of Palestine and the pilgrims, whom a reli- 
gious zeal had drawn to the holy city, cried aloud to the princes 
of Europe for their interposition. The evils which marked the 

What did he resolve? How did he begin the enterprise? Having- ransomed him- 
self, where did he proceed ?— 29. When did he undertake a second Crusade? Whal 
was the fate of his army? Of the king himself? When did the Crusades terminate ?- 
•JO. What has this period been styled ? What is said of the enterprise ? What agents 
combined lo call them into being?— 31. What is capable of producing the deepest em> 
tion? What was deemed a sacred duty ?— &}. What cried aloud for Oe interposition 
01 the princes of Europe? 



THE CRUSADES l41 

progress of the Crusades were similar to those that follow in the 
'train of other great military enterprises. It is computed that two 
millions of Europeans, during their continuance were buried in 
die East. 

33. Various opinions have been formed and maintained respect- 
ing the tendency and effects of the Crusades. But whatever in- 
dividual opinions may be entertained with regard to their object 
or their final issue, it is generally admitted that they have been, 

[hi their ultimate results, beneficial to mankind. These results 
;are observable in a greater or less degree, in the political condi- 
tion, manners and customs, navigation, commerce and literature 
'of Europe. 

34. In the first place, they checked the alarming progress of 
| the Saracens and Seljukian Turks, who were thus prevented from 

pen>et rating into the very heart of Christendom. Secondly, they 
greatly contributed towards the gradual decline of the Feudal 
System, which at that period prevailed throughout Europe. The 

.great barons who engaged in the Crusades were obliged to sell 
a portion of their lands in order to procure the means of convey- 
ing their troops into a foreign country. By this means the aris- 
tocracy was weakened, wealth more widely diffused, and the 

. lower orders of society began to acquire property, influence, and 
a spirit of independence. The sovereigns, in like manner, im- 

' pelled by the same pecuniary necessity, sold to towns important 

' privileges and immunities, such as the right of electing their own 
magistrates, and being governed by their own municipal laws. 

35. Thirdly, these expeditions had a most beneficial influence 
on commerce and navigation. Previous to this period commerce 

' had been carried on only in a very limited scale. The attention 

1 of the people of Europe had never been sufficiently drawn to the 
great advantages of water transports, until the disasters of the 
first Crusaders, in attempting to march their forces by land, im- 

j pressed upon the minds of those who succeeded the expediency 
of conveying their troops by water. Hence, by the frequent voy- 
ages to Palestine, the arts of navigation and ship-building were 

| rapidly improved, and from this period maybe dated the great 

' commercial prosperity and power of Venice, Persia, and Genoa. 

I Moreover, several new and valuable articles were imported from 
the East, which have since formed important branches of trade, 

( such as the sugar cane, with its various products, and silk, which 
began to be manufactured in Italy about the year 1209. 

36. Finally, the Crusades, although in some respects injurious 
to literature, were, nevertheless, ultimately beneficial to it. The 
frequent communication of the people of the West wkh Greece 
and Syria, which the Crusades necessarily occasioned, was one 
of the most powerful helps towards the complete revival of learn- 
How many were buried in the East?— 33 Of what have various opinions been 

formed? What is generally admitted? In what are these results observable? — 34. In 
the first place, what d'd they do? In the second place? What were the great barons 
obliged to do? By this means, what was done ? "What is said of the sovereigns? — 
'J5. Previous to this period what is said of commerce ? Of the attention of the people 
of Europe? From this period what maybe dated? What is further observed*-- 
36 What was one of the most powerful helps towards the revival of learning? 



142 CHIVALRY. 

ing. At the time when the Crusades were undertaken, owing to 
the almost uninterrupted series of hostilities, civil feuds and san- 
guinary wars, that had desolated the lace of Europe, literature 
was, comparatively speaking, much neglected. In the East^ 
however, particularly at Constantinople, learning and the arts 
were still cherished to some extent; the Crusaders, therefore, by 
their intercourse with a people more polished and enlightened than 
themselves, acquired a taste for the arts and sciences which they 
did not fail to improve on their return to Europe. 

37. Hence we find that the principal universities of Europe, 
even at the present day, were founded during the period of the 
Crusades, or immediately after. The University of Padua, and : 
that of Paris, was founded in 1180; that of Naples in 1230; that I 
of Vienna in 1238 : that of Salamanca in 1240; Cambridge in 
1280 ; and that of Lisbon in 1290. For the man}; local and tem- 
porary calamities, to which the Crusades gave rise, these are a 
few of permanent and generally admitted advantages that have 
followed as their ultimate results. 



CHIVALRY. 

1. Chivalry, or knighthood, was a military institution preva- 
lent in Europe during the Middle Ages, and forms a remarkable 
feature in the history of that period. Nothing can be conceived 
more truly noble than the leading objects of Chivalry: it united 
in its institution a love of arms and military renown, an eagerness 
to support the weak, to protect the oppressed, to avenge the 
wrongs of the widow and the orphan, to restrain the lawless, and 
to refine the rude; it blended with religion the highest senti- 
ments of honor, and inculcated a devoted attachment and invio- 
lable fidelity to the female sex ; in fine, it combined in its com- 
ponent elements, valor and honor, courtesy and religion. 

2. The early history of Chivalry is involved in obscurity ; the 
particular nations and the peculiar circumstances in which it had 
its origin are not precisely known; still the leading principles by 
which it is distinguished may be found among the manners and 
customs of the Gothic nations, by whom the profession of arms 
was the only employment esteemed honorable, and who weie 
remarkable for the delicate and respectful gallantry which they 
manifested towards the female sex. It was imbodied into a form 
dnd regulated by certain laws under the Feudal System, and 
afterwards brought to maturity and gained the meridian of its 
splendor during the Crusades, when it assumed the aspect of a 
religious institution. Chivalry prevailed in almost every part of 

At the time when the Crusades were undertaken what is said of literature? What did 
they acquire? — 37. Hence, what do we find? When were these universities founded? 

i. What is Chivalry ? What is said of it? What did it combine as its component 
elements?- -2. What is said of its early history? Where may its leading principles be 
found ' When was it imbodied into a form ? Where did it prevail? 



CHIVALRY. 143 

Europe, but in France, Spain, and Germany, it attained its 
Teatest purity; in England its introduction was later and its 
irogress slower. 

' 3. There were three degrees of Chivalry, namely, knights 
lannarets, knights, and esquires. The first rank, to which pecu- 
•iar privileges were allowed, could only be attained by those who 
»ad passed through the other two degrees. The second, and by far 
he most numerous class, consisted of knights, who Mere gene- 
ally persons of noble birth, although it frequently became the 
eward of merit, and soldiers distinguished for their valor were 
sometimes admitted into this class. The third class was the 
quirehood, consisting of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior \x.. 
'•ank to the knights, but superior to the common soldiery. 
1 4. Those who were destined for Chivalry were placed for edu- 
ction, at the age of seven years, in the castle of their father, o; 
hat of some neighboring noble, where they received the appel - 
ation of page or valet, until they arrived at the age of fourteen, 
when they obtained the title of esquire, and were authorized to 
Dear arms. They were kept in active employment in the castle, 
jeing obliged to wait upon the lord and his lady at home, and 
ittend them abroad, and thus become accustomed to obedience 
md courteous demeanor. Surrounded by noble and virtuous 
ladies, and valiant knights, the first impressions made on their 
minds were those of virtue and love, honor and valor. From 
the ladies they learned the first rudiments of religion and love ; 
md in order that they might practice in some degree the lessons 
they received, it was customary for each youth to select some 
young, accomplished, and virtuous lady as his patroness, before 
whom he might display all his gallantry, and whose duty it was 
to improve and polish his manners. 

i 5. The esquires were employed in various offices in the castle 
until the age of twenty-one, which was the proper age for admit- 
ting them to all the honors of knighthood. The candidate was 
required to prepare himself by rigid fasting, passing the night in 
prayer, and by a solemn confession ; and as a type of the purity 
of the life ana manners that would be required of him, he was 
clothed in white. Having performed these preliminary rites, he 
then entered the church, where an examination took place; and 
if judged worthy to be admitted into the order of knighthood, he 
received the sacraments and took the oath, consisting of twenty 
six articles, in which, among other things, he solemnly pledged 
himself to defend the church, to respect the priesthood, to pro- 
tect the ladies, and to redress the wrongs of the widow and the 
orphan. 

6. While yet on his knees, he received from the hands of the 
knights and the ladies the insignia of Chivalry; his spurs, cuirass, 
coat of mail, and other parts of his armor ; and lastly, his sword, 

3. "What were the three degrees? What is said of the first rank? Of the second . 
Of the third? — 4. Where were those destined for Chivalry placed? Hew were they 
kept 7 By whom were they surrounded? What was customary for each youth? — 
5. How were esquires employed? How was the candidate required to prepare 1 
What d.d lie solemnly pledge himself to do ?— 6. While on his inees, what d;d he re- 
ceive? 



144 CHIVALRY. 

which was previously blessed by the priest. The concluding 
ceremony was performed by one of the most distinguished Cheva- 
liers present, who bestowed on the young knight the accolade, 
which consisted in giving him a slight blow on the shoulder or 
cheek with his sword. 

7. The most important equipments of a knight were his horse 
and his lance; his other offensive arms were his sword, dagger, 
battle-axe, and mace. The endowments of an accomplished 
knight at the most flourishing period of Chivalry, were beaury, 
dexterity in dancing, riding, hunting, and tilting; while piety, 
chastity, modesty, courtesy, liberality, and sobriety, and above i 
all, an inviolable attachment to truth and invincible courage, 
were regarded as his necessary virtues. 

8. The professed knight possessed various privileges and dig 
nities which were not confined to the territories of his own sove- 
reign, but extended through a greater part of Europe. He could 
roam where he pleased in quest of adventures, and was at liberty , 
to challenge all those of his order he met to single combat. The 
laws of the institution made it the duty of every knight to protect i 
the chastity and honor of the ladies, and forbade nim to speak I 
disrespectful of them, or to suffer others to do so in his presence; : 
it was moreover incumbent upon him to warn them against the e 
commission of any thing that might lower them in his opinion. , 
Strictly decorous and respectful towards himself, he expected I 
that they would never forfeit their claim to his esteem. If, how 
ever, a lady transgressed the laws of decorum or prudence, he i 1 
did not fail to stigmatize her fault in the most pointed manner. , 
If he passed the castle of one of this character, he marked it in i 
some striking manner as the dwelling of a lady unworthy to o 
receive a true chevalier. 

9. Chivalry enjoined, in a special manner, the three virtues of 1 
hospitality, humanity, and courtesy. Every loyal knight was * 
expected to have the door of his castle constantly open. As soon i 
as one chevalier entered the castle of another, he considered him- ■ 
self at home, and was treated as if he were one of the family. , 
Every thing that could contribute to his comfort and his luxury | 
was at his command. If he arrived wounded, every possible e 
care was taken of him by the ladies, who were proud of having irn i 
their possession the remedies proper for such occasions. To ,a i 
vanquished foe the most scrupulous and delicate attention was ■ 

Eaid; he was treated rather as a conqueror than one who had I 
een conquered. 

10. Tournaments and Jousts. Tournaments were military 
exercises performed by two parties of cavaliers, with hurtless 
weapons. No amusement was more patronized by the knights, 
or even sovereigns themselves, than these images of war, which 

"What was the concluding ceremony? — 7. Wnnt were the equipments of a knight! 
What were his endowments? His virtues? — S. Yv'hat did the professed knight pos- 
sess ? "What did the rules of the institution oblige every knight to do? If a lady 
transgressed the laws of decorum, what did he do? — 9. What did Chivalry enjoin! 
As soon as one Chevalier entered the castle of another, what did lie consider? If he 
arrived wounded, what was done? — 10. AVhat were tournaments ? What is said cf 
them ? 



CHIVALRY 145 

were often celebrated with a splendor beyond description, par- 
ticularly at coronations, royal marriages, and after important 
victories. If the occasion was solemn, it was announced at the 
courts of different sovereigns, who were invited to attend. Not 
only knights, but even kings and princes, who valued themselves 
upon their valor and gallantry, frequently entered the list. 

11. At a tournament, the place enclosed for the combatants was 
surrounded by sovereigns and other nobles, by knights of distin- 
guished fame, and by ladies of the highest rank, who were always 
appointed judges on these occasions — a privilege, however, which 
they seldom exercised, generally deputing their power to a 
knight, who on that account was called the Knight of Honor. 
When the knights reached the lists, their arms were examined 
by the constables, in order that only hurtless weapons might be 
used. But notwithstanding this precaution, there existed, in 
many instances, a disposition to convert the tournament into a 
real battle, and thus much blood was often uselessly spilt. 

12. Nothing but the reality could exceed the performance of 
these hazardous and animating scenes. Frequently lances were 

; broken, horses and knights were overthrown, and sometimes, 
■ though seldom, death ensued. While the tide of victory flowed 
I to either side of the lists, the air was rent with the acclamations 

of the ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled multitude, 
, while the successful knight was hailed with triumphal honors 

little inferior to those bestowed on a hero returning wreathed 
i with the laurels of victory over a vanquished foe. The court ot 

Rome was justly hostile to tournaments, refusing the rite of Chris 

tian burial to those who fell on the tilting ground. 

13. Jousts were generally a combat between two knights, and 
usually took place at the conclusion of the tournaments. A 
knight who had acquired a distinguished fame would ride through 
the lists, and call on the surrounding cavaliers to encounter him 
in three strokes of the lance. If the challenge was accepted, the 
combat was conducted according to specified rules, but such was 
the dexterity of the combatants, that the encounter with the lance 
Seldom proved fatal. 

14. The origin of the duel, which is now used as a mode ot 
private revenge, may be traced to the Gothic nations. Under the 
Feudal System, and during the age of Chivalry, it was greatly 
patronised ; and it so far prevailed, at an early period, among the 
Franks and nations of Germany, that none were exempt from it, 
but women, invalids, and such as were under the age of twenty- 
one, and above the age of sixty. It was resorted to as a method 
of discovering truth, establishing innocence, and vindicating the 
character from a real or imaginary imputation. It is not sur- 
prising that a practice so absurd should have found adherents, 
during those ages when the profession of arms was regarded as 

If the occasion was solemn, what was done ? — 11. At a tournament, by whom was 
the place surrounded ? Who was the Knight of Honor ? When they reached the 
:ists. what was done? — 12. What frequently took place? What is s?.::i of the court of 
Rome? — 1:1. What were jousts? How was the challenge givenl If accepted, what 
was done? -14. Where l'nav the origin of the duel be traced ? For what was it re- 
sorted to? Was ii not surprising? 

13 



146 CHIVALRY. 

the only honorable employment, at a time when the human mind 
was, comparatively speaking, unenlightened ; but that the same 
pernicious practice should still prevail, and meet with patrons at 
this age of enlightenment, is something diametrically opposite to 
the purer dictates of human reason. 

15. Whatever opinions we may entertain of Chivalry at the 
present day, it certainly had a powerful influence in producing a 
favourable change in the manners of society, during the ages in 
which it existed. It infused humanity into war, at a period when 
men made it almost a business of life; it introduced courtesy ot 
manners among those who possessed but little refinement; it fos- 
tered in its maxims a delicate sense of honor, and a scrupulous 
adherence to truth; it cherished the finest feelings and respectful 
attachment towards the female sex ; and no institution, perhaps, 
evjr had a more powerful influence to elevate woman to her pro- 
per sphere, than Chivalry. 

16. Chivalry embraced various orders or associations of cava- 
liers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a benevolent 
character, many of which remain to the present time. These 
orders were generally of two descriptions, namely, military and 
religious, and were established in different countries, particularly 
in Palestine, England, Spain, France, and Italy. The foundation 
of the order of the Knights Hospitallers, who afterwards became 
so famous as the Knights of Malta, was laid about the middle of 
the eleventh century, by a few Neapolitan merchants, who ob 
tained permission of the Saracen caliph to erect at Jerusalem a 
house tor pilgrims. They afterwards founded, in honor of St. 
John, a church and hospital, from which they took their name; 
and besides attending to the sick and pilgrims, they bound them- 
selves, by vow, to defend the Christians of the Holy Land against 
the insults of the infidels. Thus the Hospitallers, without ceasing 
to be a religious, became a military order. 

17. The order of the Knights Templars was instituted in the 
year 1118, also at Jerusalem, by several French and Flemish no- 
blemen. They occupied a house in the city which stood near the. 
site of Solomon's Temple, from which they derived their name. 
The Teutonic order was established by a few noblemen from the 
cities of Bremen and Lubbeck, about 1190, and was intended for 
the relief of the German pilgrims. 

15. What had Chivalry? What did it infuse? What did it introduce and foster 1 
What did it cherish ? — 16. What did Chivalry embrace ? Where was the foundation 
of the Knights Hospitallers laid? What church did they build?— 17. When and where 
was thoorlc it Ux Knights Templars instituted? When was the Teutonic orJoi 
established! 



FRANCE. 

SECTION I. 

The Foundation of the French Monarchy; Merovingian and 
Carlovingian Kings, from Ji. D. 420 to 987. 

1. The history of France is intimately connected with that of 

' England, as the kings of the latter, for a long period, assumed the 
\ title of king of France, and held possession in it of varied ex 
tent, from the time of William the Conqueror to the reign or 
Queen Mary. The kingdom of France was originally possessed 
by the Celts or Gauls, a brave and warlike people, who were re- 
duced to the Roman power in the time of Julius Caesar. The 
Franks, from whom the monarchy receives its name, emerging 
from the forests of Germany, made an irruption into Gaul about 
the year 420, and gradually increased in power under their suc- 
cessive kings, Pharamond, Clodio, Meroyaeus, and Childeric. 

2. In 481, Clovis, the son of Childeric, became king of the 
Franks, and is generally regarded as the founder of the French 
monarchy. He embraced Christianity through the influence of 
his virtuous queen, Clotilda, the daughter of the Duke of Bur- 
gundy, and received baptism on Christmas day; his example was 
immediately followed by three thousand of his subjects. He 
made Paris the seat of his government, and after a long and pros- 
perous reign, he left his kingdom, according to the custom of the 
country, divided between his four sons, A. D. 511. 

3. In the year 690, Pepin cVHeristel became mayor of the pa- 
face, the first office under the crown ; at his death, he was suc- 
ceeded in the office by his son, Charles Martel, one of the most 
renowned warriors or his age. He defeated the Saracens in a 
sanguinary battle, between Tours and Poic(iers, in which, accord 
ing to many historians, three hundred thousand of the enemy 
were slain, while the French lost only about fifteen hundred. 
Charles was succeeded in the office of mayor by his son, Pepin 
the Short, who continued to govern France for several years, 
while the weak and indolent Childeric III. was nominally king. 

4. Such was the state of things, when Pepin first thought of 
assuming the title and ensigns of royalty, while exercising the 
duties of the sovereign. Finding the people favorable to his 
views, and having obtained a favorable answer* from Pope 
Zachry, who had been consulted on the subject, he finally con- 
cluded to prosecute his design. Accordingly, in a great assembly 
of the people, he was proclaimed king, while Childeric was re- 

•Ihfi answer of the Pope was in the following words: <; It were better that he 
Bbould he king, in whom the sovereign authority resides." — Eginard Annal. 

1. What is said of the history of France? Bv whom was the kingdom ongmahy 
wisse?3ed ? What is said of the Franks?— 2. What is said of Clovis ? What did ho 
BHibrace ? How did he leave his kingdom?— 3. When did Pepin become mayor of tho 
piilac ? WSiat is said of Charles Martel? By whom was Charle* succeeded ?--4 
F ndii'g ilie pcoj le favourable to lus views, what did Pepin do ? 



148 FRANCE. 

moved to a monastery, where he died three years after this event 
and with him ended the dynasty of the Merovingian sovereigns, 
A. D. 752. 

5. About this period, the Lombards, who were already masters 
of a great part of Italy, aimed at. subduing the whole, had ex- 
tended their conquests over the province of Ravenna; even Rome 
itself was* on the point of falling into their hands, when Pope 
Stephen applied for assistance to the emperor of Constantinople, 
in whose name the government of Rome was still exercised. But 
Constantine, who was at that time too much engaged in his dis- 
putes with the church, to give his attention to the affairs of state, , 
neglected to send assistance to the Romans, who in their ey- •' 
tremity were obliged to turn for aid to the monarch of France. 

6. Pepin immediately responded to the call, but previous t;i 
any act of hostility, he sent, at the pope's request, deputies to 
Astolphus., the king of the Lombards, requesting him to desist 
from his hostile designs: his proposals, however, were only an- 
swered by threats and insults. Pepin, therefore, hastily collected 
his army, crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards, and obliged 
Astolphus to accept humiliating conditions of peace. But scarcely- 
had he departed from Italy, when the perfidious Astolphus re- 
commenced hostilities, and laid siege to Rome. Pepin a second 
time crossed the Alps, and having again defeated the Lombards, 
solemnly bestowed on Pope Stephen and his successors in the 
pontifical chair, his conquests in Italy ; in this manner was com- 
menced the temporal power of the pope, A. D. 755. 

7. Pepin w T as succeeded by his two sons, Charles and Carlo- 
mon, but the latter dying shortly after the death of his father, 
Charles was left in possession of the undivided sovereignty. This 
distinguished monarch, known in history by the name of Charle- 
magne, or Charles the Great, is said to have been seven feet in 
height, of a robust constitution and majestic appearance. He was 
eminent as a statesman, and as a warrior he far surpassed all the 
sovereigns of his age. He carried on a long and sanguinary war 
with the Saxons, which finally resulted in the reduction of their 
whole country. At the earnest solicitation of the Romans, he 
turned his arms against the Lombards, who, under their kin<?, 
Desidrius or Dideir, had broken the treaty concluded by Astol- 
phus, and spread their ravages, so as to endanger the city of Rome. 
He defeated them, and completely destroyed their power in Italy. 
He afterwards conquered a part of Spain, and about the year 
800, the rank and title of Emperor of the West was conferred on 
him by Pope Leo III. 

8. His empire comprised France, Netherlands, Germany, 
Switzerland, a part of Italy and Spain. He labored incessantly 
to diffuse a spirit of literature, and encourage the useful arts, 

What became of Chikleric ? — 5. What is said of the Lombards? What did Pope 
Stephen do'' What is said of Constantine ? To whom did the Romans next turn for 
aid? — 0. What did Pepin do ? How were the proposals answered? What was the 
result? What did Pepin do after crossing the Alps a second time ? — 7. By whom was 
Pepin succeeded ? What is said of this monarch ? Al the solicilation of the Romans, 
what did he do? What title was conferred on him ? — 3. What did his empire comprise l 
What did he labor to diffuse? 



FRANCE. 149 

iroughout his vast dominions. He invited to his court, from 
»reign countries, men distinguished for their talents, among 
/horn was Alcuin, a learned and virtuous Englishman, who 
pened an academy in the palace of the French monarch. Charle- 
lagne himself, with his sons, frequently assisted at the lectures 
f this distinguished man. With regard to his table, he was ex- 
tremely frugal, and in his dress he was generally plain ; the ladies 
f his court were usually employed at the needle or distaff', and 
e even took delight in appearing ornamented with the produc- 
ions of his wife and daughters. 

9. Charlemagne died in 814, in the seventy-first year of his 
ge, and forty-seventh of his reign. He was succeeded by his 
on, Louis I., surnamed Debonair, or the Mild. The reign of 
his monarch was inglorious, and rendered unhappy by the un- 
iatural rebellion of his sons, who twice deposed and imprisoned 
heir lather, and again restored him to the throne. Louis died in 
> 10, leaving his dominions divided between his three sons. 

Charles II. presided over France; Louis obtained Germany, 
Ind Lothaire reigned in Italy, under the title of emperor. Bitter 

ontentions between the three brothers soon involved their sub- 
jects in sanguinary wars. Charles and Louis united their forces 
[gainst Lothaire, who endeavoured to deprive them of their in- 
leritance. The rival brothers at length met in the famous battle 
>f Fontenoy, where Lothaire was defeated, and compelled to 

etire to his Italian dominions. The loss on both sides, in this 
jattle, is estimated atone hundred thousand men. 

10. Charles, after a weak reign, was succeeded by his son 
Louis, the Stammerer, who, after a short reign, left his kingdom 
.o his two sons, Louis III. and Carlomon. After the death of 
Jiese princes, Charles the Fat was elected to the throne, but he 
governed with so much weakness that he was deposed, and the 
r,rbwn transferred to Eudes, during the minority of Charles the 
Simple, who afterwards succeeded to the throne. During the 
peign of this prince, the Normans, under their celebrated chief, 
Rollo, invaded Neustria, and established themselves in the north 
of France, which from them took the name of Normandy, 
A. D. 912. The remaining kings of the Carlovingian line were 
< r enerally weak princes, and their reigns were not distinguished 
For any remarkable events. After the death of Louis V., who 
died without issue, the French lords refused as his successor his 
uncle Charles, duke of Lorraine, and transferred the crown to 
Hugh Capet, duke of France, who, after defeating his rival, ob- 
tained possession of the throne, and thus formed the third or 
Capetian race of French kings, A. D. 987. 

Whom did he call to his court ? What is said of him with regard to his table. Sec. ? 
—9. When did Charlemagne die? By whom was lie succeeded? What was the reign 
Of this monarch? How did he leave his dominions? What is said of Charles and 
Louis ? Where did ihe rival brothers meet ? What was the loss on botn sides ? — 10. 
By whom was Charles succeeded ? AVho was next elected ? During the reign of this 
prune what took place? After the death of Louis V., to rvhom was the crown trans- 
ferred ? 



13* 



150 FRANCE. 



SECTION II. 

(Japeuan Kings; from Uugh Capet to Philip VI, of ValoU 
Jl. D. 987 to 1328. 

1. Hugh Capet was an able sovereign, and his administration 
was directed with wisdom ; lie enacted several salutary laws, 
added considerably to his territory, and again made Paris the seat 
of government. Either through modesty, or a fear of exciting 
the jealousy of his nobles, he never assumed the ensigns o? 
royalty; even on great and solemn occasions, he appeared inn 
plain and simple dress. 

2. Robert, the son of Hugh, succeeded his father in 996. This 
prince is described as handsome in person and gentle in his dis- 
position, but his reign presents few events of importance. His 
son Henry I. succeeded to the throne in 1031 ; his reign was 
generally tranquil and free from any extraordinary incidents. 
The reign of Philip, who succeeded his father in 10*80, was dis- 
tinguished for the preaching of the First Crusade, by Peter the 
Hermit, and the invasion of France, by William the Conqueror, 
an event which laid the foundation of that long continued rival- 
sir, p and series of hostilities, which for several succeeding cen- 
turies existed between France and England. 

3. Philip died in 1108, and left his dominions to his son Louis 
VI., surnamed the Fair, an able and accomplished sovereign, who 
enjoyed a prosperous and useful reign. On his death-bed, he ad- 
dressed his son, who succeeded him, in the following words: 
" Remember that royalty is nothing more than a public charge, 
of which you must render a very strict account to Him who 
makes kings and will judge them." Louis VII. was the next 
sovereign who swayed the sceptre of France. In conjunction 
with Conrad III., of Germany, he headed the third Crusade to 
Palestine, but was most unfortunate in that expedition. Louis 
had married Eleanor, heiress to the great duchy of Guienne, but 
divorced her for her levity and vices; and in a few weeks after- 
wards, she married Henry Pkintaga.net, earl of Anjou, who, in 
the following year, became Henry II. of England, and who, by 
his marriage, acquired a great addition to his possessions in 
France. 

4. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne in 
1180. No prince, since the reign of Charlemagne, surpassed 
Philip in military skill and enterprise^ He signalized the com 
mencement of his reign by the expulsion of the Jews from his 
dominions, and shortly afterwards joined his great rival, Richard 
I. of England, in the third Crusade. After the death of Richard, 
John, his brother, who succeeded him, was strongly suspected foi 
naving murdered Arthur, his nephew ; for this he was summoned 

1. What is said of Hugh Capet ? "What did lie never assume ?— 2 Who succeeded? 
What is said of him "J Who w;is the next sovereign? By what was the reign 01 
Philip distinguished? — 3. To whom did Philip leave his dominions?. On his death-bed, 
'..ow did he address his son? Who was the next sovereign? What did lie do? Whom 
did he marry? — 1. Who next succeeded to the throne ? What were the principal 
events ol his reign ? 



TZANCK. 151 

by Philip, as his vassal, to be tried by a court of his peers ; on his 
refusal, Philip invaded Normandy, and wrested that important 

province from the English monarch. 

5. Philip died in 1223, and was succeeded by his son Louis VIII., 
surnamed the Lion, on account of his valor. He died after a 
short reign of three years, on his return from an expedition against 
the Albigenses, who had disturbed the south of France. Louis IX., 

, commonly styled *S'/. Louis, succeeded to the throne at the early 
age of twelve years, and during his minority, his mother, Blanche, 
of Castile, filled the office of regent, in which she displayed great 
anilities. In the person of St. Louis were united all those emi- 
nent qualities that distinguish an illustrious sovereign, with all 
the virtues that adorn the Christian. His benevolence, piety and 
purity of intention are conspicuous in every action. In the early 
part of his reign, he vigorously repelled the invasion of Henry III. 

: of England, whom he signally defeated near Taillebourg, and 
finally compelled him to sign a treaty of peace. His zeal for re- 
ligion prompted him to engage in two disastrous crusades, in the 
second of which he died ot a fever, near Tunis, in the fifty-sixth 
year of his age, and the forty-fourth of his reign, A. D. 1270. 

C. St. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III., surnamed 
me Hardy, who continued the war against the infidels with 
vigor; defeated the Saracens, and compelled the king of Tunis 
to conclude a peace on terms favorable to the Christians. Philip 
IV., surnamed the Fair, from the beauty and elegance of his per- 
son, succeeded to the throne in 1285. One of the most remarka- 
dle events of the reign of this monarch, was the suppression of 
the order of the Knights Templars. Charges of the greatest 

i magnitude being brought against them, Philip ordered all the 
templars of his kingdom to be arrested on the same day. 

A committee was appointed at Paris, before which one hundred 
and forty knights were examined, all of whom, with the excep- 
tion of three, treely acknowledged themselves guilty of the denial 
of Christ, of sacrilege, and other enormous crimes. 

7. But as the persons accused belonged to an order which was 
religious as well as military, it became necessary to refer the 
affair to the ecclesiastical authorities. Accordingly, a general 
council was convened by Pope Clement V., at Vienne, before 
which the investigation into the conduct of the Templars and their 
trials, which had now occupied nearly five years, was laid 
After a deliberation of several months, the order was suppressed: 
and toe property belonging to it was transferred to the order of 
the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, who were still fighting the 
battles of Christendom against the infidels, from whom they had 
lately recovered the island of Rhodes. It appears that the order 
of the Templars, though generally corrupt, was not equally so in 

5. By whom was Philip succeeded? When did he die? By whom was he sue 
ceeded? In the person of St. Louis, what were united ? In the early part of his re.gn 
what was done ? In what did he engage ? Where did he die ?— 6. By whom was St. 
Loins succeeded? Who was the next sovereign? What was one of the most re- 
markable events of his reign? Of what did they acknowledge themselves guilty?— 
7 Bat as the persons accused, &c, what became necessary ? WheTe was a council 
convened ? After a deliberation of several months, what was done ? What appears? 



152 FRANCE. 

all places; which fact accounts for the different treatment it« 
members received in different countries. Many were acquitted 
particularly in Germany and Spain; some were condemned to 
perpetual or temporary imprisonment ; while others, who, instead 
of repenting, obstinately retracted the free avowal of their guilt 
were delivered to the secular power, to be punished according t( J 
the rigor of the law. Fifty-nine were burnt at Paris, and several 
others in the south of France. 

8. Philip died in 1314, leaving his dominions to his son Louis 
X., surnamed Hutin, or Wrangler, who was succeeded after a 
reign of a few mouths, by his brother, Philip V., whose short 
reign was distinguished for his severity against the Jews. With 
the succession of Charles IV. ended the (Japetian line of kings. 
A.. L). loZo. 



SECTION III. 

Branch of Valois ; from Philip VI. to CLaiies VIII. , A, D. 
1328 to 1498. 

1. On the death of the late monarch, the crown devolved upon 
Philip of Valois, the grandson of Philip III., the nearest male 
heir, as, according to the laws of the kingdom, females were ex- 
cluded from the throne. His succession, however, was disputed I 
by Edward III. of England, who claimed the crown of France in i 
right of his mother, Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair. I 
Philip maintained that a mother could not transmit to her issue a \ 
right which she never possessed ; and the case being laid before I 
the peers and barons of France, they unanimously declared in i 
his favor. 

2. In the mean time, Edward prepared to enforce his claim by 
an appeal to arms. He invaded France with an army of thirty 
thousand men, and gained the famous battle of Cressy, in which { 
his eldest son, the Black Prince, (so called from the color of his 
armour,) first displayed those distinguished military abilities 1 
which afterwards rendered him so illustrious. Edward, pursuing J 
his good fortune, besieged and took Calais, which remained in the 
hands of the English until the reign of Queen Mary. It was ■ 
during the reign of Philip that the title of Dauphin was given to 
the eldest son of the king of France. 

3. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son, John II., 
surnamed the Good. It was during the reign of this prince that ] 
the famous battle of Poictiers was fought, in which Edward the 
Black Prince added to the glory which he had already gained at 
Cressy. The French monarch, it the head of sixty thousand 
men, advanced against the prince whose army did not exceed 
sixteen thousand men; still, notwithstanding the disparity of 

How many w«re burmt at Paris? — 8. When did Philip die? Who were the next 
two sovereigns? On the accession of Charles IV. what took place? 

1. By whew was the succession of Philip disputed? What did Philip maintain?— 
2. In the. mean time, what did Edward do? AVhat battle did he gain? What did he 
take ? — ■ 3. By whom was Philip succeeded? During his reign what took place? 



FRANCE. 153 

lumbers, the scale of victory turned in favor of the latter; the 
French were signally defeated, their king- fell into the hands of 
he conquerors, and was led captive to London The conduct of 
;he prince towards the fallen monarch deserves the highest com- 
mendation. He endeavored to console him in his misfortune, 
waited on him at table, and, in every manner in his power, mani- 
fested towards him the utmost courtesy and respect. John was 
afterwards released on condition that he should pay one million five 
hundred thousand pounds sterling as the price of his ransom. But 
on his return to France, finding himself unable to comply with 
his engagement, he returned again to England, saying that, " If 
honor were banished from every other place, it should find an 
asylum in the breasts of kings." He was received with every 
mark of respect by Edward, who assigned him, as his residence, 
Savoy Palace, where he shortly afterwards died, A. D. 1364. 

4. On the death of John, Charles V., surnamed the Wise, suc- 
ceeded to the throne. This distinguished prince labored inces- 
santly to retrieve the losses of the preceding reign, and so 
successful was he in his efforts, that in the course of a few years 
the English were expelled from all their possessions in France, 
with the exception of Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux. Charles 
himself did not appear in the field, but from his cabinet directed 
the operations of his armies by his wise and prudent counsels. 
He raised to the office of constable of France the celebrated Du 
Guesclin, one of the greatest generals of the age. Besides being 
an eminent statesman, Charles was a distinguished patron of 
literature ; he possessed a library of nine hundred volumes, which 
was a considerable number for the period, when the art of print- 
ing was yet undiscovered ; and he may be regarded as the founder 
of the present magnificent royal library of Paris. On his death, in 
1380, his son Charles VI., surnamed the Well Beloved, ascended 
the throne. 

5. The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. He 
fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him incapable of 
attending to the administration of the government. In conse- 
quence of the king's incapacity, regents were appointed, whose 
misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. During these 
calamities which afflicted France, Henry V. of England invaded 
the country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. 
The consequence of this victory, and other advantages gained by 
Henry, enabled him to conclude a treaty by which his succes- 
sion to the throne of France was acknowledged on the death of 
Cfearles. Henry and Charles both died shortly after this event, 
A. D. 1422. 

C. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, asserted his right to 
the throne of his father, while at the same time the infant Henry 
VI. of England was proclaimed king of France under the regency 

What is said of the conduct of the prince'* Of John? On returning .o England 
•x-liat (I'd he say ?— 4. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of him ? Of what 
wus Charles a patron? 'By whom was he succeeded ? — 5. What is related of this 
monarch * Durin? these calamities, who invaded France? Waat was Hrnrj enar 
bled to do?~G. Whr.t is said of Charles VII. ? 



154 FRANCE. 

of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The English laid siege to 
Orleans, a place of tne greatest importance, and so successful 
were they in their operations against this and other places, that 
the affairs of France began to wear the most gloomy aspect ; they 
were, however, suddenly restored by one of the most extraor- 
dinary events recorded in history. 

7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, a 
young girl named Joan, about seventeen years of age, who had 
lived an humble life in a village on the borders of Lorraine, pre- 
sented herself to the governor of Vaucouleur, and maintained 
with much earnestness that she had been sent by divine commis- 
sion to raise the siege of that city, and procure the coronation of 
Charles in the city of Rheims. After undergoing a most rigid 
examination before a committee of persons appointed for that 
purpose, and also before the court and king himself, it was gene- 
rally admitted that the commission was supernatural. She was, 
accordingly intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she 
approached the city her presence inspired the inhabitants witl 
confidence, while it spread dismay and consternation among thdi 
English, who hastily raised the siege and retired with precipihi 
tion, but being pursued by the heroine at the head of the French 
army, they were entirely defeated at Patay, with a loss of near!) 
five thousand men, while the French lost only one of their nuin 
ber. From this event Joan was called the Maid of Orleans, 

8. The second part of her mission, which yet remained to lad 
accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. The city oli, 
Rheims and the intermediate country being in possession of flu! 
English or their allies, presented apparently insurmountable difliJ 
culties. Charles, however, placing full confidence in her guid; 
ance, commenced his march, and as he advanced every obstacle 
disappeared ; the citizens of Rheims, having expelled the garri 
son, received him with every demonstration of joy. After the 
coronation was performed, Joan threw herself at the feet oi 
Charles, declaring that her commission was accomplished, ant 
solicited leave to return to her former humble station; butfhr* 
king, unwilling to part with her services so soon, requested hei«, 
to remain for some time with the army, with which at length slid 
complied. She afterwards attempted to raise the sie^e of the citj 
of Carnpiegne ; but her good fortune seemed to have deserted her 
she fell into the hands of the English, who, to gratify their reveng< 
for the many losses they sustained through her valor, con 
demned her, under a charge of various pretended crimes, and 
caused her to be burnt in the public square at Rouen, 

9. By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the sue 
cess that had attended the operations of Charles. In this, how 
ever, they were disappointed ; such was the impulse which tin 
heroine had given to the affairs of France, that the English in i 

To what place did the English lay siege? — 7. When the hope of saving Orleans wa 
almost abandoned, what is related ? As she approached the city what is said of her 
— S. What is said of the city of Rheims ? What did Charles <lo ? After the coronatioi 
what did Joan d<i " What was her fate?— 9. AVhat is said of the impulse which tb< 
btjrome nad given to the affairs of France ? 



FKANCE. 155 

ew years were expelled from all their possessions in the country, 
vitli the exception of Calais. Charles passed the lemainder of 
us reign in improving the internal condition of his kingdom. The. 
•lose of his life was embittered by the unnatural conduct of hi* 
ion, who attempted to poison his father. He died in 14G4, 9 
irince of acknowledged virtue, justice and discretion. 

10. Louis XL, who succeeded to the throne, was distinguished 
or the cruelty and tyranny exercised against his subjects. He 
eft, however, some good regulations for the encouragement of' 
:ommerce and the promotion of justice. His severity occasioned 
1 revolt, which was called, "the war of the public good." His 
sanguinary disposition was displayed on a certain occasion, when 
ie pronounced the sentence of death on one of his nobles ; he 
ordered that the children of the unfortunate victim should be 
placed under the scaffold, that they might be sprinkled with the 
blood of their dying parent. His own life was rendered misera- 
ble, particularly towards the close, from the knowledge that he 
iv/as despised by his subjects, and from the terrors of a guilty con- 
science. 

11. Charles VIII., the son of Louis, succeeded to the throne in 
1483, at the age of thirteen years, under the regency of his sister, 
■the princess Ann. His father had acquired a claim to the. king 
dom of Naples; the young king, on coming of age, undertook an 
expedition against that country, which he easily subdued. Charles, 
who was remarkable for the sweetness and affability of his dispo- 
sition, died in the twenty-eighth year of his age, and with him 
ended the direct line of the house of Valois. 



SECTION IV. 

From the accession of Louis XII., to the reign of Henry III., 
A. I)., 1498 to 1589. 

1. The duke of Orleans, who was the nearest heir after the 
1 death of Charles, succeeded to the throne of France under the 

title of Louis XII. He was a wise and popular sovereign ; by his 
frugal policy he greatly diminished the burden of taxes, and 
gained the title of the Father of his people. Being urged to 
punish those who had been his enemies during the preceding 
reign, he replied, " It is unworthy of the king of France to avenge 
the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." 

2. He reduced Milan and Genoa, and prosecuted his claim to 
Naples, with some advantage, but was ultimately unsuccessful 
He joined the League of Cambray against Venice, which, on ac- 
count of its wealth acquired by its commerce, excited the jealousy 
of its neighbors; but the confederates afterwards quarrelled 
among themselves, and a new league was formed against France. 

How did Charles pass the remainder of his reign ? — 10. What is said of Louis XI. ? 
What did lie leave ? On pronouncing the sentence, what did he order? — 11. Who sue- 
seeded Louis? For what was he remarkable? 

1. What is said of ihe Duke of Orleans? What reply did he make when i;r£ed to 
punish. Aw.?- 2. What did he do? 



156 FRANCE 

The French, under the command of Gaston de Foix, duke of 
Nemours, gained an important victory over the confederates at 
the battle of Ravenna, in which the duke lost his life. After the 
death of this distinguished general, Louis soon lost all his posses- 
sions in Italy, and was compelled to evacuate the country. Be- 
fore he was able to recover these losses, he suddenly died ; an 
event which filled the hearts of his subjects with the deepest sor- 
row ; the exclamation that the givul king was dead was heard on 
every side. 

3. As the late king had died without leaving any male issue, 
his cousin, the Earl or Angouleme, ascended the throne, under the 
title of Francis I. Francis, then in the flower of his age, was of 
a romantic disposition, and fond of military glory, and soon dis- 
tinguished himself by the conquest of the Milanese. On the death 
of Maximilian, emperor of Germany, in 1519, Francis and 
Charles V. of Spain became rival candidates for the imperial 
throne. Charles was the successful candidate; and Francis, 
deeming himself injured, availed himself of this pretence for com- 
mencing hostilities against his rival. 

4. His first operations against Navarre were successful ; but 
an unfortunate misunderstanding taking place between Francis 
and the high constable, De Bourbon, one of the ablest of his 
generals; the latter basely abandoned his country and his sove- 
reign, and offered his services to the emperor Charles. Bourbon 
fought against the French in the battle of Biagrassa, in which 
they were defeated with the loss of their celebrated general, the 
illustrious Bayard, surnamed the Knight without fear and with- 
out reproach. Bourbon is said to have wept like a child over the 
dying hero ; " Weep not for me," said the magnanimous Bayard, 
"but for yourself. I die in the service of my country, you 
triumph in the ruin of yours." 

5. Francis, now taking upon himself the command of the army, 
hastened into Italy, and laid siege to Pavia, but was there de- 
feated and taken prisoner by; the imperialists under the com- 
mand of Bourbon. After thirteen months of captivity, Francis 
obtained his liberty, and having crossed the boundary of his own 
dominions, he mounted his horse, and waving his hat, he ex- 
claimed, '" I am yet a king." The conditions on which he ob- 
tained his release were so unreasonable, that Francis, on regain- 
ing his liberty, refused to comply with them. The violation of 
this treaty again involved the two rival sovereigns in anothei 
sanguinary war. The sovereign pontift' having declared in favoi 
of Francis, Bourbon, who commanded for Charles, laid siege to 
Rome, but was killed in an attempt to storm the walls. The city 
however, was taken, and for two months abandoned to the pillage 
of the infuriated soldiery, during which time it presented a scene 



"What did the French q-ain under the command of C'aston de Fnis ? Wha! 
of his death?— 3. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of Francis and Diaries 

V. 7 4. What was Hie consequence of the misumlerslandins: between Francis mri 

Do Bourbon? What did thivard say while Hourhon wept over him 9 —.'). What d>d 
Francis now do? After he obtained his liberty, \v lat is said of him? What was tha 
fate of Hourbon '! What is said of the c.itv ? 



FRANCE; 157 

of rnraous desolation, more frightful than that which it endured 
when it fell beneath the hand of the Goth or Vandal. 
I 6. After the war had raged for some time with but little ad- 
. vantage on either side, a truce was concluded, and the two rival 
, monarchs were brought to a personal interview at Aigues Mortes, 
in France, where the warmest expressions of friendship passed 
between them. The following year, Charles obtained permission 
to pass through France on his way to the Netherlands ; he re- 
mained for six days at Paris, where he was entertained with great 
magnificence. The war was again renewed between the two 
sovereigns, respecting Milan, which terminated unfavorable to 
Francis, who died shortly after peace was restored, in the fifty- 
second year of his age, A. D. 1547. Francis possessed, in many 
respects, the reputation of a great sovereign. His impetuous 
courage, his frank and generous disposition, gained him the affec- 
tion of his subjects. He was a liberal patron of literature and the 
arts, which made great progress in France during his reign, and 
the French court acquired that polish and refinement which have 
sioce rendered it so conspicuous. 

7. Henry II., who succeeded Francis, was brave, affable, and po- 
lite; he inherited in some degree the abilities and courage of his 
father. His reign, which continued for thirteen years, was almost 
one uninterrupted series of hostilities with Charles V., and his sou 
Philip II., of Spain. Henry gained an important advantage over 
the imperialists at the siege of Metz ; but Philip, in his turn, 
gained the famous victory of St. Quentin. The reign of Henry 
was also signalized by the recovery of Calais, which was taken 
after a siege of eight days, by the celebrated Duke of Guise, after 
it had remained in the possession of the English for two hundred 
and ten years. Henry's severity against the Huguenots gave rise 
to those sanguinary civil wars, which for several succeeding reigns 
distracted and desolated France. His death was occasioned by an 
accident which happened to him at a tournament. 

8. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who, after a short 
reign of one year, left the throne to his brother, Charles IX., then 
a boy, in the tenth year of his age, who commenced his reign 
under the regency of his mother, Catherine de Medicis. At this 
time the Protestant religion began to make considerable progress 
in France, and had gained the patronage of several distinguished 
men, among whom were the Prince of Conde and Admiral Co- 
ligni. The leading men in the administration were the celebrat- 
ed Duke of Guise, and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. In 
order to bring about an accommodation, and to settle the difficulties 
without further bloodshed, a conference was held at Poissy, for 
the purpose of discussing the points in dispute between the Catho- 
lics and Protestants. The conference was attended by the king 



After the war had rajred for some v.me. what was concluded ? Whnt look plae*.- the 
nvingycar? When did Francis die ? Wh.it did he possess ? Of what was lie 



6. 
followi: 

the patron'?— 7. Who succeeded Francis ? With whom was he engaged \n hostiliriesil 
By what was his reig-n signalized ? What occasioned his death ?— S. Who were ll e 
next two sovereigns? What is said of the Protestant religion at this time? Who were 
the leading men :n l ic administration ? What was the ohject of the conferen-'e al 
roissy ? 

14 



158 FRANCE. 

and the most prominent personages of the court. The Protestant 
cause was supported by the celebrated Theodore Beza, while the 
Catholic doctrine was defended by the distinguished Cardinal of 
Lorraine. 

9. After this conference, an edict was published granting im- 
portant privileges to the Protestants. But the spirit of discontent 
still prevailed between the two parties, and the flame of civil war 
again burst forth and deluged the fairest portion of France in de- 
vastation and blood. The Catholics under the command of the 
Duke of Guise and Montmorency, defeated the Huguenots under 
the Prince of Conde,and the Admiral Coligni, in several engage- 
ments. During the contest, the Protestants lost their most able 
leader, the Prince of Conde, who fell in battle ; while on the 
other hand, Charles had to lament the loss of the firmest support 
of his throne, the Duke of Guise, who was cut oft' by assassination. 
Peace was at length restored, and the Protestants obtained free 
toleration in religion. 

10. The most memorable transaction in the reign of Charles, 
was the massacre of the Protestants which took place on St. Bar- 
tholomew's day. So various and contradictory are the accounts 
given of this event by different writers, as to the number of the vic- 
tims, and the motives that prompted it, that it is a difficult task, 
at the present time, to arrive at the true state of the facts. On the 
occasion of the marriage of the sister of Charles, to the king of 
Navarre, Coligni and other distinguished Protestant leaders were 
invited to court. During the celebration of the nuptial ceremonies, 
various circumstances happened which contributed to bring about 
the odious measure that followed. As Coligni passed through the 
streets, he was severely wounded by an assassin. The public 
voice attributed the attempt to the young Duke of Guise, in re- 
venge for the murder of his father at the siege of Orleans ; it pro- 
ceeded, however, from the queen-mother, Catherine de Medicis, 
who was alarmed at the gradual influence which the Admiral 
seemed to acquire over the mind of Charles. 

11. The wounds which Coligni had received were not danger- 
ous : but his followers crowded to his residence; their threats of 
vengeance terrified the queen ; and in a secret council the king 
was prevailed upon to give his sanction to the destruction of the 
leaders of the Protestant party. From the close connection of 
events immediately preceding the massacre, it would seem that it 
originated in the animosity of the French court against the Pro- 
testant leaders, and was dictated rather by a momentary impulse, 
than by any studied or preconcerted pian. The youn* king, 
whose mind was harassed by the frequent revolts of the Hu- 
guenots against his authority, was only induced to consent to 
this cruel measure after the positive assurance of his mother and 
chic/ counsellors, that his safety required that the leaders of the 

9. After this, what was published? What is said of the spirit of discontent ? During 
this, whom did the Protestants lose 7 What had Charles to lament? — 10. What wai 
the most memorable transaction of the reign of Charles ? During the celebration of 
the nuptials what took place? From whom did it proceed? — 11. In a secret council, 
what was the king prevailed on to do? From what would it seemed to have origi- 
nated ? When was the king induced to consent to the cruel measure ? 



FRANCE. 159 

party should be cut off, and that if he waited until morning, his 
most faithful officers, his family, and perhaps himself, would be 
sacrificed to their vengeance. 

. 12. In this state of mind, he gave his consent to the projected 
massacre, which took place during the night of the twenty-third 
of August, and a part of the following day. The residence of 

■ Coligni was forced, and he was put to death, with his principal 

■ counsellors ; the populace joined in the work of blood, and every 
•Huguenot who fell in their way was sacrificed to their fury. 

Although the massacre was only intended for the capital, still it 
extended to several provinces ; the governors, though instructed 
to prevent similar excesses, had not always the power or the will to 
check the fury of the people, and the bloody tragedy of Paris was 
imitated in several other towns. With regard to the number of the 
victims, it is impossible to speak with certainty. Some writers 
exaggerate the number to seventy thousand ; others estimate thir- 
ty, twenty, or fifteen thousand. The reformed niartyrologist 
adopted a means of ascertaining the real number, by procuring 
from the ministers in the different towns where the massacre took 
place, a list of the names of the persons who suffered. He pub- 
lished the result in 1582, and in all France he could discover the 
names of no more than seven hundred and eighty-six persons. 

13. Charles, in order to palliate the shame of this murderous 
edict against the Huguenots, wrote to every court in Europe, 
stating, that having just detected their horrid plots against his 
authority and person, he was fortunate enough to escape from the 
imminent danger to which he was exposed, by cutting off the 
leaders of the party. Many, deceived by this statement, and yet 
unacquainted with the true nature of the facts, congratulated him 
on his good fortune. Among others, Pope Gregory XIII., on re- 
ceiving the account of the transaction, as given by Charles, of- 
fered up public thanks, not that he rejoiced at the death of the 
supposed traitors, but for the preservation of the French monarch 
and his kingdom from ruin. 

14. Charles did not long survive this event ; he died shortly after- 
wards, of a pulmonary complaint, and was succeeded in the throne 
by his brother, Henry III., a weak and fickle prince. In the be- 
ginning of his reign, he granted important privileges to the Pro- 
testants, but he afterwards joined the League projected for the 
defence of the state and religion, and took the field against them. 
By this conduct he lost the confidence of both parties; he was 
finally assassinated by James Clement, a Dominican friar, in the 
fourth year of his reign, A. D. 1588. 

12. "When did it take place? What was the fate of Coligni? With regard io the 
number of victims, what is said ? "What do some writers exaggerate it to ? What 
was the number according to the reformed martyro'gist ? — 13. What did Chicles do 
in order to palliate the shame? What is said of Pope (Gregory XIII. ?— 14. Fy vhotn 
was Charles Buc.cee.Ud? What ;s said of Henry ? How did he die? 



160 FRANCE. 



SECTION V. 

House of Bourbon, from Henry IV., to the Death of Louis AT. 
A. D. 1589 to 1774. 

1. On the death of Henry III., the king- of Navarre ascended 
the throne of France under the title of Henry IV., who was after- 
wards called the Great. His accession was however greatly opposed 
by a powerful party in the state. The Cardinal of Bourbon was 
proclaimed king by the army of the League, then under the com- 
mand of the Duke of Mayenne, and took the title of Charles X. 
But the army was signally defeated by Henry, in the famous bat- 
tle of Ivry. m The difficulties and dangers which surrounded 
Henry daily increased. He had been educated in the reformed 
religion, which he still continued to profess, while the greater 
part of his subjects were Catholics. The king began now serious- 
ly to turn his mind to the subject of religion, and having; asked 
several Protestant divines if he could be saved by professing the 
Catholic doctrine, and being answered in the affirmative, he con- 
cluded that it would be a safer policy, in his peculiar situation, to 
embrace that religion. Accordingly, in 1593, he abjured Pro- 
testantism, and declared himself a Catholic. 

2. The event was productive of beneficial results to France; 
his claim was immediately acknowledged by all orders of the 
state, and the sanguinary civil wars which had so long afflicted 
the kingdom, were happily terminated. Henry having gained 
quiet possession of the throne, was governed by principles of the 
wisest policy. By the celebrated Edict of Nantes, he granted ta 
the Protestants the free exercise of their religion, confirmed all 
their rights and privileges, and gave them free admission into all 
the offices of honor and emolument. 

3. Henry now turned his attention towards the improvement 
of his kingdom. A civil war of nearly thirty years' duration had 
produced the most calamitous effects. The land was unfilled, the 
people poor and wretched, the crown loaded with debt. But by 
the wise and prudent measures of Henry, these evils were soon 
removed, and prosperity began again to diffuse itself throughout 
the kingdom. The wisest of his" counsellors was the Baron de 
Rosny, afterwards Duke of Sully, in whom he found an able 
minister and a faithful friend. 

4. Henry, by his great abilities, having elevated France from 
the wretched condition in which he found her, at his accession to 
the throne, to a high state of prosperity and happiness, fell a 
victim to the fanaticism of a monk named Ravaillac, who had long 
planned his death. As the king rode through the streets of the 
capital, he was accidentally stopped by some obstruction in the 
way; Ravaillac, who was always on the watch, seized this fa- 
vourable moment, mounted on the wheel of the carriage, and 

1. On the dealh of Henry III., who ascended the throne? Who was declared king 
by the army ot the League? In what had he been educated ? What did lie do in 1 W'i ?— 
2. Of what was this event productive? What did he do by the Edict of Nantes?— 3. To 
what did lie now turn his attention? Who was the wisest of his counsellors?— 
4. How did Henry die\ Relate, the circumstances of his death? 



FRANCE. 161 

stabbed the king twice before any one could oppose him. Thus 
fell Henry IV., who may justly be ranked among the greatest of 
the French monarchs, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, and in 
the twenty-first of his reign, A. D. 1610. 

5. When the fatal event was made known in Paris, the whole 
city presented a scene of mourning. Ravaillac was seized, and 
put to the most cruel tortures, to induce him to confess the name9 
of those who were his accomplices ; but to the last, he persisted in 
'maintaining that no one except himself was concerned in the 
action. As a sovereign, Henry was deservedly great; to pro- 
mote the happiness of his people, seems to have been his predomi- 
nate passion; he was kind and familiar to the lowest of his sub- 
jects, and was beloved by them to a degree bordering on enthu- 
siasm. His private life was far from being so commendable, and 
the manners of his courtiers were rendered profligate from the 
example of their sovereign. 

G. Louis XIII., the son of the late monarch, succeeded to the 
1 throne at the age of nine years, under the regency of his mother, 
Mary of Medicis, who displeased the nobility by her partiality for 
Italians; and during her administration the kingdom relapsed 
into many disorders. Louis, on assuming the reins of govern- 
ment, chose for his prime minister the famous Cardinal Richelieu, 
one of the greatest men of his age. During the reign of this mon- 
arch, the kingdom was again distracted by civil war; the Pro- 
testants attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish 
an independent state, selecting jRochelle for the capital. Riche- 
lieu laid siege to this city, which finally surrendered after an ob- 
stinate resistance of twelve months. The fall of this city termi 
nated the civil war, and greatly weakened the Protestant powei 
in France. A second rebellion was excited by the Duke of 
Orleans, the king's brother, and supported by the Duke of 
Montmorency; but it was finally crushed, and Montmorency 
executed for treason. 

7. The great abilities of Richelieu were conspicuous in all his 
undertakings. While he extended the glory of France and com- 
manded the respect of all the powers of Europe, he became also 
the zealous patron of literature and science, and instituted the 
French Academy. He died in 1642, and was followed to the 
tomb in the succeeding year by Louis himself, in the forty-third 
year of his age and the thirty-fourth of his rei<p. 

8. Louis XIV. succeeded his father at the early age of five years, 
imder the regency of his mother, Ann of Austria. She made 
choice of Cardinal Mazarin for her prime minister, whose admi- 
nistration was particularly distinguished by the defeat of the 
Spaniards at Rocroy, Friburg, and Lens, who taking advantage 
of the king's minority had commenced hostilities. On the death 
of Mszarin, Louis, at the age of twenty-two, took upon himself 

5. What is said of Paris when the news was made known ? What is sa J of Henry 
as a sovereign? Of his private life?— 6. Who succeeded to the throne ? Who was 
chosen prime minister? During the reign of Louis, what is said of the kingdom? By 
whom was a second rebellion headed ?— 7. What is said of the abil.ties of B'cheJieu? 
When did he die ? — S. Who succeeded t Who was made prime .Ti.nister ? How was 
Jlis administration distinguished? 



162 FRANCE. 

the entire direction of the affairs of government. To the liappj 
choice he made of his ministers, may be attributed the brilliant 
achievements that distinguished the early part of his reign. The 
financial affairs were regulated by the famous Colbert, an able 
and sagacious statesman ; his armies were commanded by 'he 
Princes of Conde and Turenne, two of the greatest generals of 
the age ; while the genius of Vauban was employed in fortifying 
his towns. 

9. He subdued Franche Comle, which he annexed to France, 
conquered a part of Netherlands; overran Alsace, and twice de- 
solated the Palatinate. Alarmed at the success that attended 
the arms of the French monarch, the league of Augsburg was 
formed, in which Holland, Spain, Sweden, and several other of l 
the German States united against him. In 1701 a second league, 
was entered into by England, Germany, and Holland, against 
the power of France. The splendid career of victory which 
marked the early part of his reign, was now exchanged for a series 
of reverses which attended the close of his long and eventful life. 
His armies were no longer directed by the master spirits of Tu- 
renne and Conde; they had, moreover, to contend with the genius 
of the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, who gained over 
them the celebrated victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde n 
and Malplaquet; and at the peace of Utrecht, Louis lost nearly all I 
the advantages he had formerly gained. 

10. Louis died in the seventy-eighth year of his age, and the $ 
seventy-third of his reign, A. D. 1715. His reign, which is one 
of the longest recorded in history, is illustrated by many brilliant 
achievements. The most impolitic measure of his long adminis- 
tration, and one that has incurred the censure of subsequent his- 
torians, was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, granted by 
Henry IV. for the toleration of the Protestant worship. By this 
act, all the Protestant ministers who refused to abjure their 
tenets, were commanded to quit the kingdom within the space 
of two months. As to the other Protestants, they were allowed 
to remain in France, where they might freely carry on their busi- 
ness, " without being molested or harassed on account of their 
religion," to use the words of the repealing act. Many, however, 
preferred to follow their ministers into exile; but as to the num- 
ber of persons who thus went into banishment, it is impossible to 
ascertain. Some authors swell the number to five hundred thou 
sand ; while Larrey and Benoit, both Protestant writers, admit 

it to have been about two hundred thousand. The Duke of Bur- 
gundy, whose candor and ample means of research entitle him 
to credit, assures us that the French refugees did not exceed sixty 
thousand in all. 

11. Although the king, with the advice of his ministers, adopted 
these severe measures against the Huguenots, it cannot be sup- 

Who regulated the financial affairs? Who comrr. inded his armies? — 9. Wftat did 
he do? What league was formed against him ? In 1701, what was formed? What 
te said of his career of victory? What victories were gained by Prince Eugene?— 
10. When did Louis die? What is said of his reign? What was the most impohtie 
measure ? By this edi< t, what was commanded? What is said of the number who 
went into banishment? How many do some authors state? 



FRANCE. 16o 

.posed that this portion of his subjects were entirely without blame; 
:heir frequent manifestations of hostility to the government, their 
baity open revolts, which had plunged the kingdom into all the 
ivils of civil war, might be offered as some palliation for the revo- 
;ation of the Edict of Nantes. To this may be added the fact, 
hat all the Protestant governments of Europe at the time exer- 
cised the utmost severity against the Catholic portion of their 
subjects. This, however, is but a feeble excuse; example is no 
palliation for a fault; in a more enlightened and liberal age, we 
disavow the spirit of persecution, even the shadow of intolerance. 

12. Louis is said to have been handsome in his person, and to 
,ravc excelled in all the polite accomplishments of the age. The 
■love of glory was his ruling passion; this he pursued, not only by 
\\\$ military achievements and the splendor of his conquests, but 
ilso by the patronage which he gave to literature and science; by 
promoting all the useful arts, and by giving encouragement to 
commerce, manufactures, and public works. The capital was 
.embellished, the palaces of Versailles and Louvre were built; 
the canal of Languedoc and other useful works were constructed. 
The reign of Louis XIV. has been styled the Augustan Age of 
French literature, and is distinguished for the number of eminent 
•men who flourished during that period. Conde and Turenne at 
the head of his armies have acquired imperishable fame: Colbert 
in the cabinet; Bossuet, Fenelon, and Bourdaloue in sacred elo- 
quence; Pascal and Descartes in Mathematics and Philosophy; 
llacine, Boileau, J. B. Rousseau in poetry. 

: 13. Louis XV., the great-grandson of the late monarch, suc- 
ceeded to the throne at the aire of five years under the regency 
of the Duke of Orleans. Tlie Dutchess of Ventadour was ap- 
pointed governess to the young king, a lady well qualified for the 
important charge reposed in her. Louis, on coming of age, chose 
for his chief minister the virtuous and amiable Cardinal Fleury, 
who was then in the seventy-third year of his age, but still re- 
tained his vigour and activity till near ninety. By the wise and 
pacific counsels of this distinguished man, the prosperity of 
France was revived and its tranquillity preserved for near twenty 
years. 

14. After the death of Fleury, France was engaged in the war 
of the Austrian Succession, which took place on the death of the 
emperor Charles VI. The two competitors for the imperial 
throne were Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the late em- 
peror, and Charles the elector of Bavaria. The claim of the for- 
mer was supported by Great Britain, while the cause of the latter 
-.vas espoused by France and Prussia. The English and their 
allies under George II. gained the battle of Dettingen, and the 
French in their turn obtained the victory at the battle of Fonte- 

11. What cannot be supposed? What might he offered as some palliation for \» 
revocation of the Edict of Nantes? To this, what may be added ? What do we cbs 
avow? — 12. What is said of Louis? What has Lis reign been siyled ? Mention some 
of the most distinguished men. — 13. Who succe( ded to the throne ? Whom did Louis 
choose for his chief mmisier? By his wise counsels, what was revived ? — 14. In wha* 
was France enga^d I W: o ivere ;he two competitors? By wiicm were they sup 
foricd » 



164 FRANCE. 

noy. Peace was restored by the treaty of Aix la-Chapelte, and 
the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged. 

15. In 1755 war was again renewed between England and 
Fiance, respecting their American possessions. This was termi- 
nated by the peace concluded at Paris in 1763, when the most 
important of the French possessions in North America were 
ceded to Great Britain. Louis died in 1774, in the sixty-fifth 
year of his age, and in the fifty-ninth of his reign. 

The reign of this monarch and that of his predecessor occupied 
the unexampled period of one hundred and thirty-two years. 



SECTION VI. 

trnds XVI. ; The Revolution; Buonaparte; Louis XVIII,; 
Charles X. From Jl. I). 1774 to 1830. 

1. Louis XVI., the grandson of the late king, succeeded to the 
throne in the twentieth year of his age. The situation of this 
virtuous and benevolent prince was beset with difficulties of no 
ordinary character. The prodigality of his predecessor hadi 
impoverished the nation and loaded the people with taxation; a 
general corruption of morals and contempt for religion were 
manifested by those who were at the head of the government 
while the principles of atheism were widely disseminated througd: 
the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau and others. 

2. The deranged state of the finance first claimed the attention 
of Louis. He placed at the head of this department, Turgot, an 
eminent statesman, and chose Alalesherbes as his prime minister. 
These distinguished men, after several unsuccessful attempts to 
remove the evils and to reform the abuses of the state, resigned 
their situations and retired from office. The celebrated Necker, 
a native of Geneva, having succeeded Turgot at the head of the 
finance, pursued the same system of economy and reform ; but 
becoming unpopular with the courtiers, he was finally removed. 

3. About this period, two commissioners from the United States' 
arrived at Paris, to solicit the aid of France in behalf of the Ame- 
ricans, who were then struggling for their independence against 
the power of Great Britain. Although the American envoys 
were at first denied an audience in a public capacity, still the 
cause in which their country was engaged excited the deepest 
sympathy among the French nobility, and obtained many private 
volunteers, among whom the Marquis de Lafayette was the most 
conspicuous. When the news of the failure of Burgoyne's expe- 

By what was peace resloied?— 15. In 1775, what war was renewed? How did n 
terminate? When did Louis die? "What was the length of his reign? "YVha perioi 
did these two monarchs occupy? 

I. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of his situation? What wet* mam 
fested? What were disseminated ?— 2. What claimed the attention of Louis? Who 
was placed at the head of this department? AVho succeeded Turgot?— 3. At that 
period, who arrived at Paris? What is said of their cause? When th< news of the 
failure of Burgoyne's expedition reached Paris, what took place? 



FRANCE. 1(35 

dition readied Paris, a favorable change took place in the French 
cabinet with regard to America. The queen, who had always 
favored the interest of the Americans, now espoused the cause 
(or which they contended with renewed ardor. The king and 
litis ministers, who had hitherto acted with caution and reserve, 
at length determined openly to acknowledge the independence 
ill the united States. Their commissioners, Franklin and Deane, 
were received as public ambassadors, and in February, 1778, a 
treaty of amity and commerce was signed between France and 
America. 

As soon as this event was made public, the English ambassa- 
dor was immediately recalled from Paris, and war declared by 
Great Britain against France. 

4. Various causes have been assigned as the origin of the 
French Revolution. The public debt, which had been greatly 
increased by the benevolent efforts of Louis, in assisting the peo- 
ple of the United States in gaining their independence, left the 
state of the finance in the most embarrassed condition ; the return 
of the French officers and soldiers, after the successful termination 
,of the American Revolution, disseminated through France a spirit 
in favor of liberty and republican principles; a general corruption 
of morals and open contempt for religion, became more prevalent, 
^particularly among the higher orders of the state, while atheism 
and infidelity were daily increasing. These and other circumstances 
contributed towards exciting that fearful storm which spread de- 
vastation and blood over the plains of France, and convulsed the 
whole continent of Europe. 

5. After every plan for restoring the deranged condition of the 
finance had proved ineffectual, Louis convoked an assembly 
called the Notables, composed of persons selected from the high- 
est orders of the state, to whom it was proposed to levy a tax on 

• all classes without exception, in proportion to their prosperity; 

!but they refused to sanction this measure, as they perceived it 
would subject them to some personal sacrifices. After this a de- 
mand was made for the convocation of the States-General, a body 
consisting of the three orders, nobility, clergy, and commons, 
which had not been assembled since the year 1614, and never had 

, a regular existence. 

6. The assembly of the States -General convened on the 5th ot 
May, 1789, at Versailles, where it was addressed by the king in 
a mild and conciliatory speech. It was not long, however, be- 
fore the members of the assembly disagreed among themselves; 

. the commons, with such of the nobility and clergy as were dis- 
posed to join them, seized the legislative authority, declared 

i themselves the representatives of the people, and styled themselves 
the National Assembly. Of this body Bailly was chosen presi- 
dent, while Mirabeau and the Duke of Orleans, (a man of the 

In 1778, what was done? What was done by Great Britain?- 4. What are some 
of the causes assigned as the origin of the French Revolution? — 5. What did Louis 
convoke? What was proposed? After this, what demand was made?- 6. When 
was *iie States-General convened? What did the commons do? Of this body who 
was chosen president 7 



166 FRANCE. 

most abandoned character,) were the two most prominent mem- 
bers. By the very first act of the National Assembly, Louis 
found himself, in a great measure, deprived of his authority, and 
all who refused to unite with the commons saw themselves shut 
out from power, and all their rights and privileges invaded. 

7. While these things were transacting at Versailles, an insur- 
rection broke out in ]?aris, which was characterized by the most 
ungovernable violence. The Hotel des Invalides was taken by 
surprise, and thirty thousand muskets were seized ; the prison of 
Hostile was demolished, the governor was massacred and his 
head fixed upon a pike, and carried through the streets amidst 
the shouts of the infuriated rabble. When the news of these vio- 
lent proceedings reached Versailles, the king hastened to the 
capital, with the hope of being able to allay the tumult; he ad- 
dressed the multitude with the warmest expressions of friendship,, 
and succeeded in restoring a temporary calm ; after this he again, 
returned to Versailles. But scarcely had he departed, when the 
insurrection was renewed with increased violence. The infu- 
riated populace directed their vengeance against all those whom 
they considered their oppressors, and the whole city of Paris was 
deluged in blood. 

8. They finally proceeded to Versailles, and demanded that 
the king should return to the capital. In compliance with their 
request, the unfortunate monarch, accompanied by the royal 
family, left Versailles and proceeded on his way to Paris; he; 
was, however, protected from violence through the influence and 
efforts of the Marquis de Lafayette, who commanded the national 
guard. 

9. The progress of the revolution now made rapid advances; 
the Stales- General underwent a change and was styled the 
National Assembly ; the royal authority was nearly annihilated :: 
the privileges of the nobles and clergy were abolished ; the church 
lands confiscated ; the monasteries suppressed, and France di- 
vided into eighty-three departments. 

The next measure of the National Assembly was the formation 
of a new constitution, and from this circumstance it was styled 
the Constituent Assembly. 

10. In the mean time, Louis and the royal family escaped from 
the palace of Tuileries, and reached the frontiers of tlie king- 
dom, when they were detected and again brought back to Paris. 
The new constitution was at length completed, and received the 
sanction of the king; it established a limited monarchy, and placed 
all orders of the state upon an equality. After this the assembly; 
dissolved itself on the 30th of September, 1791. The next 
assembly that met on the first of October was styled the Legis- 
lative Assembly. 

By its first art, what aid Louis find?— 7. What broke out in Paris ? What was 
done? "When this news reached Versailles, what did Louis do? Against whom did 
the populace direct their vengeance ? — 8. Where did they proceed, and what did they 
demand? By whom was Louis protected?— 9. What is said of the progress of tho 
revolution? How was France divided? What was the next measure of the National 
Assembly ?— 10. In the mean time what did Louis do ? What did the new constitution 
establish? What was the next assembly styled ? 



FRANCE. 1 67 

1 1. At an early stage of the revolution, various political clubs 
were, formed, among which the Jacobin Club (so called from the 
plate of its meeting) was the most predominant. This factious 
association long continued to possess a powerful influence in the 
capital and to govern the proceedings of the Assembly. Another 
association, styled the Club of Cordeliers, surpassed the Jacobins 
in avowed contempt for religion, government, and law. On the 
21st of Sentember, 1792, a new body was convened, styled the 
National Convention ; at its first meeting the regal government 
tvas abolished, and France declared a republic ; the next step was 
to consummate the drama ; the king himself was arraigned at the 
bar to answer to various charges brought against him. 

12. In vain did Louis refute the absurd charges of which he 
wale accused ; in vain did the eloquence of Deseze vindicate his 
innocence; his enemies thirsted for his blood, and the sentence 
of death was pronounced against him. The ill-fated monarch, 
who had passed through all these trying scenes with a fortitude 

'not usually met with under similar circumstances, bowed in per- 
fect resignation to that fate which he saw he was unable to avoid. 
On the 21st of January, 1793, after taking an affectionate leave 
of his queen, his children, and his sister, the princess Elizabeth, 
who had attended him in the most trying scenes, he was led to 
the place of execution. With a firm step he ascended the scaf- 
fold ; for a moment he surveyed the multitude with calm serenity, 
and then addressed them in a few words : "I -die innocent; I 
pardon all my enemies, and I pray that France may not suffer 

I for the blood she is about to shed." At this moment the noise 

i of the drums drowned his voice \. he then calmly placed his head 
under the guillotine, and as the. axe descended, his confessor ex- 
claimed, "^Son of Sj. Louis, ascend to heaven." Thus perished 

i Louis XVI., in the thirty-ninth year of his age ; a prince whose 
only fault seems to have been the love of his people. 

I 13. After the death of the king, his amiable and virtuous con- 
sort, Marie Antoinette, was marked out for destruction. On the 
16th of October, 1793, having received the sentence of death, she 

1 was brought from the prison, meanly clad, with her hands bound 
behind her, and conducted to the place of execution in a common 
cart, attended by her confessor, the curate of St. Landry. As she 
passed through the streets, she occasionally raised her languid 
eyes and gazed for a moment on the words Liberty arid Equmity^ 
inscribed on the houses. On the scaffold she conducted herself 
with her usual fortitude, until she was desired to lay her head 
upon the block; at this awful moment she grew pale and became 
apparently insensible. She was beheaded amidst the furious cries 
of Vive la Republique. 
14. During the May of 1794, the amiable and beautiful pnn- 

11. At. an early stage of the Revolution, what was formed? What wore the two 
principal clubs? At the first meeting of the National Convention, what was done?— 
12. What is said of Louis? What sentence was pronounced against him ? Oa the 
21st of January what was clone? What words did headdress? What did his con- 
fenor exclaim?— 13. Who was next marked out for des'.ruction? On tne lGlh of 
October what it said of her ? Asshe passed the streets? On the scaffold?— 14. During 
the May of 1791, what was done? 



168 



FRANCE. 



cess Elizabeth, tne sister of Louis, was brought forth to execu- 
tion ; and about a year later, the young dauphin, an interesting 
child, died in prison, of a disease contracted from confinement.. 
and from the barbarous treatment he received from the guards! 
Of all the members of the royal family, the daughter of Louis, 
afterwards duchess of Angouieme, was the only one who did not 
fall a victim to the furious storm that desolated France. 

15. The National Convention was soon divided into furious 
factions, of which the principal were the Mountain party, headeu 
by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, men of the most unparal- 
leled depravity and cruelty; and the Girondists, of which Brissot, 
Vergniaud, and Condorcet, were the leaders, and were less ex- 
travagant in their views. The Mountain party, under Robes- 
pierre and his associates, whose bloody dominion is styled " the 
reign of terror," having gained the ascendency, committed the 
most fearful massacres. Brissot and Vergniaud, the leaders of 
the Girondists, with twenty of their partisans, fell a sacrifice to 
the vengeance of the predominant faction. That monster of vice 
and cruelty, the Duke of Orleans, suffered the same fate, from 
the hands of those very men whom he had been instrumental in 
bringing into power. 

16. The Convention now indulged in the most extravagant 
excesses. On motion of Gobet, archbishop of Paris, the Christian 
religion was suppressed, and a decree passed, declaring that the 
only deities hereafter to be worshipped in France, should be 
Liberty, Equality, and Reason ; a republican calendar was esta-, 
blished; the Sunday was abolished, and in its place every tenth: 
day was appointed as a day of rest. The churches were despoiled 
of their ornaments and treasures; even the bells were melted and 
cast into cannon. 

17. After these extraordinary proceedings," the Convention was 
again divided into two violent parties; Robespierre at the head 
of one, and Danton the leader of the other. Robespierre prevailed, 
and all his most conspicuous opponents were brought to the guil- 
lotine; but his own bloody career was soon destined to terminate; 
being condemned on a charge of tyranny, he was executed in July, 
1794. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin club was sup- 
pressed, and during the following year a third Convention was 
formed, and the executive power vested in five Directors. 

18. The sovereigns of Europe, alarmed at the extravagant pro- 
ceedings of the revolution in France, began to consider the pro- 
priety of uniting their forces, in order to oppose its fearful pro- 
gress. At an early stage of the convulsion a coalition was formed 
between Prussia and Austria, for the purpose of re-establishing 
the royal authority and restoring tranquillity to the country. After 
the execution of Louis, the Jirst of the five great coalitions was 



About a vear later' — 15. How was the National Convention divided? What is 
sold of the Mountain party? Of Brissot. kc. ? Of the Duke of Orleans ?— 16. What 
was done on the motion of Gobet? What is said of the churches ? -17. After this, 
what is said of the convention? Who prevailed? What is said of his own career ' 
A.fter the fall of Robespierre, what was done ?— IS. What is said of the sovereigns of 
Europe ? At an early stage of the Revolution what was formed ? And after the death 
»{ Louis? 



FRANCE. 169 

formed between Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spain, 
against France. The combined forces having invaded France, 
under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, were completely 
overthrown. 

19. The French, elated by this triumph, began to think of car- 
•rying their arms into the dominions of their assailants. Accord- 
ingly t under the command of Bumouriez, they subdued the Neth- 
erlands, Holland, Switzerland, and a part of Germany. In 179G, 
•the command of the French army was given to Napoleon Buona- 
parte, then a young man in the twenty-seventh vear of his age, 
who had previously distinguished himself at the siegeof Toulon. 

This extraordinary man soon astonished the whole continent of En- 
rope by the brilliancy of his victories. He completed the conquest 
iof Italy, and compelled the Austrians to sign the treaty of Campo 
Formio, by which the French conquests in the Netherlands were 
■ confirmed. The Venetian territories were given up to Austria, 
and the Milanese was ceded to the Cisalpine Republic, which was 
newly formed out of the Austrian and Papal territories in Italy. 

20. Buonaparte next directed his victorious arms against 
■Egypt, defeated the Mamelukes in the famous battle of the Pyra- 
mids, and took possession of Cairo and all the Delta. In 1798, 
the Frdncli fleet was defeated by the English under the celebrated 
Nelson, in the Bay of Moukir. In 1799, a second coalition was 
formed between England and Russia, in which Austria and seve- 
ral other poweis afterwards engaged. During the campaign 
vvhich followed, the French were most unfortunate. The Aus- 
trians, under the Archduke Charles, and the Russians under their 
general Suwarrow, gained several important victories in the 
north of Italy and in Germany, and by uniting their forces, they 
threatened the frontiers of France. 

: 21. At this crisis, Buonaparte found it necessary to return to 
Paris to remedy the disorders caused by the misconduct of the 
Directory at home. By the aid of his partisans, Fouche, Talley- 
irand, and others, he succeeded in abolishing entirely the Direc- 
tory, framed a new constitution, and caused himself to be elected 
first consul. From this moment the affairs of France took a new 
turn; Buonaparte finding himself placed beyond all control, by 
his energy and activity surmounted every obstacle caused by the 
intrigues of his enemies; and by suppressing various factions 
which had long existed in the country, succeeded in restoring 
order and tranquillity in every department of the government. 

22. Placing himself again at the head of his army, he effected 
the celebrated passage of the Alps, and defeated the Austrians in 
the memorable battle of Marengo ; this victory was followed by 
a second defeat of the Austrians at Hohenlinden, by the Frencu 
under Moreau. These, and other advantages on the part of 
France, were followed by the peace of Luneville, with Austria, 
and the German empire ; and in the succeeding year, 1802, after 

19. In 1776, what was done? What is said of this extraordinary man? — 20. Where 
did Buonaparte next direet his arms? In 179S what took place ? Who gained severo) 
victories in the north of Italy. &c. ?— 21. At this crisis what did Buonaparte find it 
necessary to do ? By the aid of his partisan's, what did he do ? What did lie now dot 
-32. What did he now eilect ? 

15 



170 FRANCE. 

the peace of Amiens with England, Europe for the first time since 
the commencement of the Revolution, enjoyed the blessing of uni- 
versal tranquillity. 

23. Buonaparte spent the short interval that elapsed between 
the cessation of war and the renewal of hostilities, in performing 
various acts of public utility. In compliance with a previous con- 
tract with Pope Pius VII., he re-established the Christian reli- 
gion, which had been suppressed by order of the Convention. He 
published a civil code ; offered great facilities to commerce; anu 
greatly embellished the city of Paris by new buildings and monu- 
ments. But at the same time his course was marked with cruelty 
and blood ; he exercised the utmost rigor against Moreau and 
Pichegru,two illustrious generals, who were accused of partici- 
pating in a conspiracy ; the former was exiled, and the latter 
strangled in prison, while a number of others were brought to the 
guillotine. The Duke cP&nghien, a prince of the Bourbon 
family, after a mock trial, was shot during the night at the castle 
ofVincennes. 

24. During these transactions, the mind of Buonaparte was 
actively engaged in maturing schemes of a higher ambition. After 
causing himself to be elected consul for life, with power to 
appoint a successor, he began to think of assuming the sceptre. 
Addresses were made by the civil and military bodies, offering, 
him the imperial dignity, which he condescended to accept; he 
was accordingly crowned in 1804, by the Pope, Emperor of 
France, and in the following year he assumed the title of King of 
Italy. 

25. The peace of Amiens was of short duration. In 1803, the 
war had been renewed between England and France; and in 
1805, a third coalition was formed by England, Austria, Russia,; 
Sweden, and afterwards by Prussia. The emperor immediately 
placing himself at the head of his army, took the field against the 
powers combined against him. At Ulm he captured the Austrian 
army of thirty-three thousand men under Mack ; and in the 
memorable battle of Austerlitz, he defeated the united forces of 
Russia and Austria; at this battle the three emperors were 
present. This brilliant victory terminated the campaign, andi 
brought about the peace of Presburg, by which Austria ceded to 
France her Venetian territories. A few weeks previous to the 
battle of Austerlitz, the English fleet, under Lord Nelson, gained 
a great victory off Cape Trafalgar, over the combined fleets of 
France and Spain. The English captured nineteen ships of the 
line, but had to lament the loss of their celebrated admiral, who 
fell in the action. 

26. As the king of Naples had permitted the English and Rus 
sian army to pass through his dominions, he drew upon himself 

After the peace of the Amiens, what is said of Europe ? — 23. How did Buonaparte 
spend the short interval ? In compliance with the contract with Pope Pius VII , what 
did he do? What did he publish ? What acts of cruelty did he exercise ?— 24. After 
causing himself to be elected consul for life, what did he begin to think of? When 
and by whom was he crowned emperor ? — '25. What was done in 1803 and in 18Q6T 
What "did he do at Ulm ? At Austerlitz ? What did the English fleet gain ? Who fell in 
the action ?— 2G. What is said of the King of Naples? 



FRANCE. 17J 

the indignation of the emperor of France, who deposed him, and 
placed his brother, Joseph Buonaparte, upon the Neapolitan 
throne. lie next compelled the Dutch to receive, his brother 
Louis as king of Holland. After this, he subverted the consti- 
tution of the German empire, and formed a union of the several 
states, under the title of the "Confederation of the Rhine;" 
obliged Francis II. to resign his title of Emperor of Germany and 
king of the Romans, and take that of Emperor of Austria ; and 
raised the electors of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony, to the 
rank of kings. 

27. In 1806, a fourth coalition was formed, in which Russia, 
Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and England united against France. 
The emperor, with his usual good fortune, defeated the Prussians 
m the great battles of Jena and Auerstadt; immediately entered 
Berlin, and here commenced the Continental system against 
English commerce, declaring the British islands in a state of 
blockade, and ordering all ports to be closed against them. 
Peace was restored in the following year by the treaty of Tilsit, 
when Buonaparte bestowed on his brother Jerome the provinces 
wrested from Prussia, which he erected into the new kingdom ot 
Westphalia. When the news of the Berlin decree reached Eng- 
land, the British government issued their orders in council, by 
which all neutral vessels trading with France were compelled to 
stop at a British port and pay a duty. In consequence of these 
orders, the emperor, who proceeded to Italy after the peace of 
Tilsit, issued his Milan decree, by which all vessels submitting to 
the British search, or consenting to any pecuniary exaction, were 
confiscated. 

28. Elated by the astonishing success that attended his arms, 
(he emperor of France gave full scope to his ambition, and set at 
defiance ail principles of justice and moderation. He next fixed 
his attention upon Portugal, and so decisive was he in the execu- 
tion of his plans, that the royal family was forced to quit the 
kingdom, and embark for Brazil. He compelled Charles IV. of 
Spain to abdicate his crown in favor of his brother Joseph Buo- 
naparte, who was in consequence transferred to the Spanish 
throne, and Murat, who had married the sister of Napoleon, was 
raised to the throne of Naples. 

29. The Spaniards, in this emergency, applied for aid to Eng 
land, who readily granted them assistance ; this circumstance 
gave rise to the Peninsular war, which continued to rage from 
1808 to 1813. 

In the mean time war again broke out between France and 
Austria, which Buonaparte prosecuted with his usual success. 
Having gained several important victories over the Atistrians at 
i%e,isbsrg, Fatishon, and Wagram^ he compelled the emperor 
Fiancis to submit to a humiliating treaty at Vienna, by which he 

• What dkl he compel the Dutch to do? After this what did he subvert, &c.?~27 
What was formed inlSOG? What did the emperor ? What took place the following 
V''nr ! At the news of the Berlin Decree, what was done by the British government? 
What did the emperor issue?— 28. On what did he next fix his attention? What did 
he rompol Char'es IV. to do ?— 20. What gave rise tc the Peninsular war ' »Vhatdid 
b-' compel the empeior Francis to submit to? 



172 FRANCE. 



agreed to accede to the continental system, and to give his daugh- 
ter, Maria Louisa, in marriage to the emperor of France. In con- 
sequence of this treaty, Buonaparte was solemnly divorced from 
the Empress Josephine, a woman o( the most amiable character, 
/*nd became allied to the imperial house of Austria. 

30. By the treaty of Tilsit, Alexander, the emperor of Russia, 
lad acceded to the continental system against England, and 
agreed to exclude British goods from his dominions ; but finding 
this measure extremely injurious to his subjects, he thought 
proper to retract his assent. In consequence of this, Buonaparte 
determined on the invasion of the Russian empire. Early in the 
spring of 1812, he collected an army consisting of four hundred 
thousand infantry, sixty thousand cavalry, and one thousand two 
hundred pieces of artillery, and on the twenty-fourth of June, he 
crossed the Niemen on this memorable expedition. 

31. His progress towards Moscow, to which he directed his 
march, was interrupted by the Russians, whom he defeated at 
Smolensk, and the tremendous battle of Borodino, at which nearly 
thirty thousand men fell on each side. He afterwards proceeded 
to Moscow, which he iound enveloped in flames, and abandoned 
by its inhabitants. The city had been set on fire by the Russians, 
to prevent its affording an asylum to the French army. Buona- 
parte, in this emergency, thought it prudent to retreat towards 
the frontiers. There is scarcely to be found in the annals of his- 
tory a parallel for the suffering which the French army now 
endured from cold and famine. It is stated that near thirty thou- 
sand horses perished in a single day, from the severity of the 
weather; and of the immense army with which he invaded Rus- 
sia, only about thirty thousand men remained to recross the 
Niemen. 

32. In the mean time, the emperor, leaving the remnant of his 
army, after it had crossed the Beresina, near the frontiers, tied 
in disguise to Paris, raised another army of three hundred and 
fifty thousand men, and found himself opposed by a fifth coali- 
tion, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and several 
of the confederate states of the Rhine. Without losing a moment 
of time, he put himself at the head of his army, defeated the allied 
powers in the battle of Bautzen; repulsed them to Dresden : 
where Moreau, one of the ablest of their generals, was slain; bui 
was utterly overthrown in the tremendous battle of Leipsic, with 
a loss of forty thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
The combatants in this great engagement, called the Battle of 
Nations, exceeded four hundred thousand, a greater number than 
has ever been known to have been engaged in any one battle in 
modern times. # . 

33. After this battle, the emperor fled to Paris, and made a 

In consequence of the treaty, what followed ? — 30. "What is said of Alexander, end' 
peror of Russia? What was the number of his army? — 31. AVhat is said of h.s pro 
press towards Moscow? What number fell on each side at the battle of Borodino' 
How did he find Moscow ? How many horses perished in a day? How many men 
recrossed the Niemen ? — 32. In the mean time, what did the emperor do ? Where did 
he defeat the allied powers ? Where was he overthrown ? What is said of the com- 
batants in that engagement?— 33. After ih;s battle, what did the emperor dn? 



FRANCE. 173 

vain attempt to rouse the French people. Without loss of time, 
the Allies crossed the Rhine, penetrated into the heart of France, 
and entered the capital. Buonaparte, finding his situation hope- 
less, abdicated the throne of France, and after various delibera- 
tions, the island of Elba was fixed upon for his future residence; 
but he was allowed to retain the title of emperor. Matters being 
thus arranged, Louis XVIII. was restored to the throne of his 
ancestors. 

34. While the allied sovereigns were yet holding a congress at 
Vienna, for the purpose of arranging the affairs of Europe, 
Buonaparte returned from exile, and made another effort to regain 
the throne of France. Landing at Frejus, he marched with only 
eleven hundred and forty men, without opposition, through the 
country ; presented himself in an open carriage to the royal army 
at Melun; was received with shouts of applause; entered Paris 
the same evening ; and was again proclaimed emperor, amidst 
the loudest acclamations. '1 hus in twenty days after his landing 
at Frejus, he found himself quietly seated on the throne, without 
having spilled a drop of blood. This exploit, which is regarded as 
one of the most extraordinary of his life, is without a parallel in 
history, and evinces, in a striking manner, his ascendency over the 
French nation. 

35. As soon as his return to France was made known at Vienna, 
he was declared, by the congress, a traitor and an outlaw. A, 
new and formidable coalition was formed against him, by nearly 
all the powers of Europe. He placed himself once more at the 
head of his army, but was entirely defeated by the Allies, under 
Wellington and Blucher, in the memorable battle of Waterloo,, 
with a loss of upwards of forty thousand men in killed and 
wounded. 

36 This battle sealed the fate of Buonaparte. He fled to 
Paris, abdicated the throne in favor of his son, and shortly after- 
wards surrendered himself to Captain Maitland, of the Belle- 
rophon, asking an asylum in England, which, he said, in a letter 
to the Prince Regent, was the most powerful, the most constant, 
and most generous of all his enemies. But it was unanimously 
agreed among the allied sovereigns, that he should be sent a pri- 
soner to the Isle of St. Helena, where he arrived on the 17th of 
October, 1815, and there died on the 5th of May, 1821, in the 
sixth year of his captivity, and in the fifty-second of his age. 
[See his Character in Biography.'] 

37. After the second dethronement of Buonaparte, Louis XVIII. 
was again placed onthe throne of France, which was now reduced 
to nearly the same limits as before the Revolution. The govern- 
ment was compelled to restore a considerable amount of the plun- 
der collected at Paris, to pay £28,000,000 sterling towards the 

What is said of the Allies? What place was fixed for his residence? — 04. While 
ihe allied sovereigns were holding- a congress at Vienna, what took place? Landing 
ut Frejus, what did he do ? What is said of this exploit ? — 35. As soon as his return 
was made known, what was he declared? Where was lie defeated by the Allies! 
W'.tb what loss ? — :~>0. After this battle, what did he do ? Where was he sent? When 
did he die ? — 37. W ho was agan placed upon the throne ? What was the goveinment 
compelled to do ? 

15* 



174 ENGLAND. 

expense of the war, and maintain for five years an army consist- 
ing of one hundred and fifty thousand of the allied troops, to be 
placed in different fortresses on the frontiers. Murat, who had 
neen raised to the throne of Naples, and Marshal Ney, having 
both taken part with Buonaparte after his return from Elba, were 
sentenced to be shot. 

38. Louis XVIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother, Count 
d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. # The reign of this monarch 
was signalized by two foreign enterprises; one in favor of the 
Greeks, in which France united with England and Russia, the 
other against the city of Algiers, which surrendered to the French 
after a siege of six days, on the 5th of July, 1830. This reign 
was also disturbed by the contests between the ultra-royalists and 
the liberal party. 

39. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a strong 
stand against the ministry; in consequence of this, the chamber 
was dissolved by the king and new elections ordered. On the 
2Gth of July, it having been ascertained that a great majority of 
the newly elected members were liberal, an ordinance was issued I 
by the government, dissolving the chamber before it met, sus- 
pending the liberty of the press, and altering the mode of elec- 
tions. 

40. The publication of this ordinance caused the greatest com-, 
motion in Paris; the citizens took up arms against the govern- 
ment, and on the 29th of July gained a decided advantage over 
the king's guards. The chamber of deputies met on the third of 
August ; the throne was declared vacant, and the Duke of Orleans 
was called to accept the crown. On the 9th of August the Duke 
took the oath prescribed, and ascended the throne of France 
under the title of Louis Philip, the present king. At the com-i 
mencement of the outbreak in Paris, Charles X. tied to Scotland,' 
where he resided some time with his family, in tranquil obscurity, 
in the ancient palace of Holyrood. 



ENGLAND. 

SECTION I. 

England from the Conquest by the Romans, Jl. C. 55 to Ji, J) 

827. 

1. In pursuing the history of England the mind is forcibly 
struck with her gradual rise from the lowest state of barbarism 
to the highest point of civilization and refinement. Early records 
represent her as a weak and defenceless province prostrate at the 

What was the fate of Murat and Marshal Ney?— 33. By whom was Louis succeed- 
ed? By what was his reiern signalized? — 39. In March, 1830, what took place? Id 
July, what ordinance was issued ? — 40. What is said of the citizens ? Who was called 
to accept the crown ? What became of Charles ? 

J. In pursuing the history of England, how is the mind struck? How do early 
records represent her? 






ENGLAND. 175 

feet of a foreign power, while her present history exhibits her aa 
a nation holding the highest rank in power, in the arts of peace 
and war, and with her commerce holding communion with the 
most distant regions of the earth. 

2. The authentic history of this country can only be traced 
from its conquest by the Roman arms. A Dart of the island was 
invaded and conquered by Julius Caesar, fifty-five years before 
tlie Christian era. According to ancient writers, the first inha- 
bitants were a tribe of Gauls or Celtae, who had landed on the 
island from the neighboring continent. This is probable, as 
their language, manners, and mode of government bear a striking 
resemblance to each other. Although, comparatively speaking, 
in a state of barbarism, the inhabitants had made some slight pro- 
gress in civilization and had gained some knowledge of agricul- 
ture previous to the invasion of the Romans. They lived in huts 
built in the forest, clothed themselves in the skins of beasts, and 
lived on the milk and flesh of their herds. They were not wholly 
ignorant of the arts of war; their armies, which consisted princi- 
pally of foot soldiers, were equipped chiefly with the bow, the 
shield, and the lance. They had, moreover, a kind of war-cha- 
riot set with scythes, which caused dreadful slaughter when 
driven among their enemies. 

3. The religion of the ancient Britons was that of Druidism, a 
degrading form of superstition; their priests, called Druids, pos- 
sessed an unbounded control over the minds of the people. They 
taught the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul, and offered 
human victims to appease the wrath of their gods. The oak was 
considered the peculiar residence of the deity, and at their reli- 
gious solemnities, both the priest and the people wore chaplets of 
oak, and covered the altar with the leaves. No vestiges of their 
sacred groves are now to be found, but the ruins of their temples 
which still remain show that they attained, at an early period, a 
considerable advancement in the mechanical arts. 

4. Such was the condition of Britain when it attracted the 
ambition of the Roman power. Julius Caesar, who had spread 
his conquests over Germany and Gaul, now cast his eye upon the 
isle of Britain. He was not allured by the prospect of wealth 
nor the richness of the soil, but led on by the ambition of carrying 
his arms into a region which before was considered inaccessible 
to the flight of the Roman eagle. With this view, having col- 
lected a numerous fleet, he embarked with about ten thousand of 
his troops. On his arrival in sight of the coast he beheld it covered 
with the Britons, prepared to dispute his landing. Not a little 
surprised on meeting with such determinate resistance, the Ro- 
man soldiers remained some time in doubtful suspense, until the 
standard-bearer of the tenth legion, leaping into the sea, advanced 
towards the shore, declaring that he would do his duty to Caesar 
and to Rome. 

Her present history ?— 2. What is said of the authentic history? According to an- 
cient writers, wnat were the inhabitants? How did they live? Of what did their 
armies consist?— 3. What is said of religion? What did they teach and offer ? Whal 
18 said o* the oak? What do the ruins of their temples show ? — 4. AVhat is said of 
Caesar? J3y -ruat was he allured? What is said of the Roman soldiers? 



176 ENGLAND. 

5. His example was followed by his companions; they gained 
the shore and put themselves in order for battle. The undisci- 
plined Britons, unable to cope with Roman legions, were routed 
and tied iu confusion. Although discomfited for the present, 
they were not conquered, but rallying under tneir respective 
leaders, they soon obliged the invader to retire to the continent 
with all his forces. Caesar, however, was indefatigable in what- 
ever he undertook; returning the following year, he again invaded 
the island, forced the inhabitants to a subjection rather nominal 
than real, obliged them to give hostages for their future obedience, 
and again returned to Gaul. 

6. In the reign of Claudius, A. I). 44, the Roman arms were 
again directed towards the final subjugation of Britain. For nine 
years the illustrious Caractacus bravely defended his dominions 
against the power of Rome; but being at length defeated by tlie 
Roman general Ostorius, he was taken prisoner and led captive 
to Rome; as he passed through the streets and beheld the splen- 
dor of the city, he was heard to exclaim, "Alas! how is it pos- 
sible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home, should 
envy Caractacus in his humble cottage in Britain." In A. D. 59, 
during the reign of the emperor Nero, Suetonius was sent to con- 
duct the war against the Britons; he defeated them under their 
celebrated queen Boadicea, who put an end to her own life to 
avoid falling into the hands of the conquerors. But the final 
subjugation was effected during the reign of Titus by Jigricola^ 
who conquered Galcagus, a distinguished Caledonian chief, and 
established the Roman dominion over all the southern part of the 
island. A. D. 78. 

7. In order to prevent the incursions of the barbarians from 
Caledonia, the Romans built three walls across the northern part' 
of the island. The first was of turf, built by the order of the 
emperor Adrian, extending from Sol way Frith to the mouth of 
the river Tyne; a second of wood by Antoninus, between the frith 
of Clyde and Forth ; and a third of stone, by the emperor Severus. 
In order to repel the irruptions of the Goths and other barbarous 
tribes from the North, who now found their way into the plains 
of Italy, the Romans were obliged to recall their legions from 
the protection of their more distant provinces. Impelled by this 
necessity, near the middle of the fifth century, they withdrew 
their forces entirely from Britain, leaving the inhabitants to their 
own resources, four hundred and sixty-five years after the land 
ing of Julius Caesar. 

8. The northern inhabitants, the Scots and Picts, no longer 
intimidated by the Roman legions, demolished the walls and car- 
ried their devastations over the southern part of the islai d. The 
Britons, unable to protect themselves, sent deputies soliciting the 
aid of the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the north of Ger- 

5. What is said of the Britons? What did they soon oblige ihe invader to do? What 
did Ca?sar again do ?— 6. What took place in 44? What is said of Caractacus ? Whal 
did he exclaim? In A. D. 59, what took place? When was the subjugation finally 
flfccte J? — 7. To prevent the incursions of the barharians, what did the Romans do? 
By whom were they built? When wei ; their forces entirely withdrawn from Britain 1 
.-&. What did the northc-n inhabitant do? Tc whom did the B- tons apply for aidT 



ENGLAND. 177 

many. The invitation was kindly accepted: a Saxon armv of 
sixteen hundred men under the command of two brothers flen- 
gist and Horsa, was sent to their relief; and the Scots and Picts 
were soon compelled to retire to their own dominions. The 
Saxons having expelled the Scots and Picts, instead of returning 
to their own country] turned their arms against the Britons them- 
selves, and sending for a reinforcement of Saxons, Angles and 
Jutes, they took possession of the country and reduced the inha- 
[ bitants to subjection. From the Angles, the name of England 
is derived. 

9. A series of contests ensued between the inhabitants and the 
invaders. Among the chieftains who opposed the Saxons, the 
name of Arthur stands conspicuous. This renowned prince, whose 
history is regarded by many as a romance, is said to have defeated 
them in many signal engagements, without, however, being able 
to effect a deliverance of his country. After a contest of nearly 
one hundred and fifty years, the Saxons succeeded in establish- 
ing their power, and erected a Heptarchy, or seven Saxon king- 
doms, which continued for about two hundred years, and exhi- 
bited during that period an almost unbroken series of dissensions 
and sanguinary contests. At length Egbert, king of Wessex, a 
man of superior talents, prudence and valor, first united them in 
one kingdom, under the name of England. 

10. Previous to this period, the light of Christianity had shone 
upon the island. Towards the close of the sixth century, St, 
Austin, was commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great to carry the 
glad tidings of salvation to the inhabitants of Britain. Austin, ac 
companied by forty monks, set forward to England ; and having 
arrived in the island, announced to Egbert the object of his mis- 
sion. Egbert and his queen,* attended by; a vast retinue of their 
warlike subjects, kindly received the missionaries, and gave them 
an audience in the open air. St. Austin explained the doctrines 
of Christianity ; the king shortly after this received baptism public- 
ly, and such was the salutary influence of his example that ten thou- 
sand of his subjects are said to have been baptized in a single day. 



SECTION II. 

From the foundation of the Monarchy, to the Norman conquest, 
A. B. 827 to 1066. 

1. During the reign of Egbert the coast of Britain was visited 
by a formidable enemy in the Danes, who repeatedly plundered 
and devastated the land, destroying every thing by five and 

* Bertha, the name of his queen, was the daughter of the king of Paris and had 
previously embraced Christianity. 



Having expelled the S;ols and Picts. what did the Saxons do ? — 9. Among the chief- 
tains, -who is conspicuous ? What is said of him ? After a contest of one Hundred and 
fifty your;, what did the Saxons establish? "What is said of Egbert?— 1(1. Toward the 
close of die sixth century what took place ? What is said of Austin ? What did he 
explain, and what followed ? 

1. During the reign of Egbert, by whom was the coast of Britain visiter)? 



178 ENGLAND. 

sword, and continued to be a scourge to the country for upwards 
of two hundred years. 

2. Nothing of great importance occurred from the reign of 
Egbert to that of Alfred the Great, the sixth king of England. 
On coming to the throne he found himself surrounded on all sides 
by those inveterate enemies, the Danes. In One year he is said to 
have defeated them in eight different battles, and succeeded in 
forcing them to retire from his dominions. However it was but 
for a short duration; returning with reinforcements, they ex- 
tended their ravages, and obliged Alfred to solicit a peace. In 
his distress, the king was compelled to seek shelter for his safety 
by retiring into obscurity, and thus disguised in the habit of a 
peasant, he passed several months in the cottage of a herdsman, 
in the capacity of a servant. While in this humble abode, he was 
ordered by the herdsman's wife to take care of some cakes that she 
had left baking at the fire. But Alfred, whose mind was other- 
wise employed, forgot the injunction he had received, and lettfie 
cakes burn ; for which neglect he was severely reprimanded by 
his mistress, who told him that he was always pleased to eat her 
cakes, though negligent in toasting them. 

3. From his retreat he carefully observed the movements of 
the Danes, who from success had become remiss, and watched the 
earliest opportunity of again placing himself at the head of h{9 
followers, who had lately gained some slight advantage over their 
enemies. In order to ascertain the state of the Danish army, he 
disguised himself as a harper, entered their camp and played for 
the amusement of the soldiers ; he was even introduced to Guth- 
rum, the Danish prince, in whose tent he remained for several 
days. Having thus learned in person the unguarded condition of 
the Danes, he returned to his followers, and placing himself at 
their head, he attacked the enemy by surprise, and routed thera 
witli great slaughter. 

4. Having subdued the enemies of his country, and restored 
peace to his kingdom, Alfred turned his attention towards repair- 
ing the evils they had caused, and improving the moral condi- 
tion of his subjects. He invited to his dominions the most emi- 
nent scholars from all parts of Europe; established schools for 
the instruction of his people; founded the University of Ox- 
ford, composed a code of laws, and, according to many his- 
torians, he established the trial by jury, and translated various 
works into the Saxon language. It is recorded of Alfred, that he 
executed forty corrupt judges in one year; and so exact and im- 
partial were the police, that he even suspended gold bracelets by 
the highway, and no one was found to lay a rapacious hand upon 
them. 

5. He usually divided his time into three equal parts ; one of 
which was employed in study and devotion: a second in the dis- 
charge of business ; and the third in sleep and recreating his 

2. On coming to the throne, how did Alfred find himself? In this distress, what is 
related of him t — 3. From his retreat what did he carefully do? — In order to ascertain 
the sta'e of the Danish camp, what did he do ? — 4. Having subdued his armies, what 
did Alfred do ? Whai is recorded of him . ? — 5. How did he divide his time ? 



ENGLAND. 173 

body by exercise and diet; these divisions he exactly measured 
by burning tapers of equal length. Alfred has been justly re- 
carded by all subsequent historians, as one of the wisest and most 
illustrious princes that ever adorned the English throne. He was 
distinguished equally for his private virtues and his public charac- 
ter, justly reputed the greatest warrior, legislator, and statesman 
of his age. He was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the 
£h!er, A. D. 901. Edward inherited much of the military spirit 
of his father, and his reign was almost one continued contest with 
the Northumbrians and Danes. 

6. Edward was succeeded by his brother Athelstan, a prince 
of great ability; he carried on a successful war against the Danes, 
Scots, and Northumbrians; strengthened and enlarged his king- 
dom, caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon lan- 
guage, and enacted a law conferring the title of thane, or gentle 
man, on every merchant who should make three voyages to the 
Mediterranean Sea. 

7. Edmund, his brother, succeeded to the throne. The reign 
of this king was short, and his death tragical. As he was cele- 
brating a festival in Gloucester, the notorious robber Leolf, whom 
Edmund had banished, entered the hall where the king was 
dining, and took his seat among his attendants; being ordered to 
leave the apartment, he refused to obey ; upon this Edmund rose 
and seized him by the hair; Leolf drawing his dagger, killed the 
king upon the. spot. Edmund was succeeded by his brother 
Edred, whose reign was distinguished by the final subjection of 
Northumbria. He had for one of his principal advisers Bunstan, 
the learned and venerable abbot of Glastonbury. The king de- 
posited with him all his treasures, and the title of his lands; and 
earnestly besought him to accept the vacant bishopric of Win- 
chester, which preferment he declined. Edred, whose constitu- 
tion was naturally weak, expired in the tenth year of his reign, 
and left the throne to Edwin. 

8. Edwin, or Edwy, is generally represented by cotemporary 
writers, as a prince of a profligate character, whose reign would 
scarcely be worthy of notice, were it not for several disputed 
points which occupy a considerable space in some of our modern 
historians. Elgiva, a lady of high birth, conceiving the design of 
securing for herself, or daughter, the dignity of queen, and with 
the view of captivating Edwin's affections, one or the other, was 
constantly in his company. On the day of his coronation, after 
the banquet was over, Edwin hastily left the hall where his nobles 
were seated, and repaired to the company of Elgiva and her 
daughter. His nobles considering his departure as an insult, 
appointed the Bishop of Litchfield, and the abbot of Glastonbury, 
in the name of the whole assembly;, to go and recall the king. 
They found him in a most unbecoming situation with Elgiva and 

For what was he distinguished ? By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of 
Edward? — 0. By whom was Edward succeeded ? What were his principal acts?— 
7. Wlio succeeded to the throne? Relate vhe circumstances of his death. By whore 
was he su-cceeded ? To whom did Edred leave the throne? — 8. How is Edwin re 
presented? What is said of Elgiva? On llie day of bis coronation, what is said of 
Edv/m ? What did his nohles do ? 



ISO ENGLAND 

her daughter, and having placed the crown upon his head, they 
conducted him back into the hall. 

9. Shortly after this, Dunstan was banished from the kingdom, 
at the instigation of El-giva, and Edwin was married. This event, 
it was natural to expect, would put an end to his amorous con- 
nections with Elgiva. Whether on that occasion she was sent 
home t<. her husband, or committed to the care of her relations, 
does not apnear ; but the king, instigated by his passions, or by her 
solicitations, carried her oft' by force, and placed her on one of 
the royal farms* Archbishop Odo undertook to remove the scan- 
dal by enforcing the laws prescribed against women of abandoned 
character. {Leg. Sax. 58.) Through his influence she was re- 
moved from the farm and banished to Ireland. 

10. In the second yearof his reign, the Mercians having re 
jected his authority, Edwin marched against them in person, but 
was defeated, and fled with precipitation into Wessex. Elgiva, 
who had returned from banishment, accompanied him on his 
flight; at Glo'ster she fell into the hands of the insurgents, who 
put her to death in a most cruel manner. That she was never 
married to Edwin, at least at the time of his coronation, will ap- 
pear evident by consulting the original extracts from the histo- 
rians of that period, to be found transcribed in Lingard's notes 
to his history of England. (Vol. 3, page 311.) 

11. Edwin died shortly after the Martian war, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Edgar, A. D. 959. One of the first acts" 
of the new monarch was to recall from exile the Abbot of Glas- 
tonbury, who received episcopal consecration, and was appointed 
to the bishopric of Worcester, but was afterwards translated to 
the metropolitan see of Canterbury. The reign of Edgar was 
rendered memorable for being the period in which England was 
freed from wolves ; by offering a reward for each head, he pro- 
dueed such diligence in the search of them, that the race shortly 
disappeared. 

12. Hearing of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, daughter 
of the Earl of Devonshire, he sent his favorite Athelwold to 
ascertain if her beauty corresponded with the report. Athel- : 
wold was so completely overcome by the charms of Elfrida, that 
he resolved, if possible, to espouse her himself. Accordingly on 
his return, he represented to the king that her beauty had been 
greatly exaggerated, and that she was not handsome ; but on ac- 
count of her wealth, he thought she would be a suitable match for 
an earl, and thus obtained the king's permission to marry her. 
Having afterwards discovered the treachery, Edgar, resolving to be 
avenged, killed Athelwold with hi-s own hand while hunting, and 
shortly afterwards espoused Elfrida. 

13. Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the 
Martyr, in consequen:e of his having been assassinated at the 

9. Shortly after this, what took place ? What did Odo undertake?— 10. In the second 
year of his reign what took place ? What is said of Klgiva ? What will appear evi- 
dent?— 11. What was one of the first acts of Edsrai ? Fur what is his reign uiepio 
rahle?— 12. Hearing of the beauty of Klfrida, what die! lie dc ? What is related oi 
Athelwold 7 What was his ei.d?— 13. By whom was Kdgar succeeded ? What WOS 
3fs end' 



ENGLAND 181 

i instigation of his step-mother, EJfrida, who was induced to this 
crime for the purpose of procuring the crown for her own son #> 

Ethelred II. next ascended the throne, to whom historians give 
the surname of Unready, from his want of promptness when 
called to duty. He was a weak and inactive prince. During his 
reign the Danes again invaded the kingdom under Sweyn their 
king. Ethelred fled to Normandy, leaving the kingdom in the 
hanlls of the invaders. The people, thus left without a leader, 
quietly acknowledged the Danish sovereign ; but on the death of 
Sweyn, Ethelred was again restored. After an unfortunate reign 
of thirty-five years, Ethelred died, leaving the throne to his son 
Edmund, surnamed Ironside, on account of his great strength 
and valor; but courage and abilities were unable to save his 
declining country. 

14. Canute, the son of Sweyn, having succeeded to the throne 
of Denmark, asserted his claim to the crown of England, invaded 
the country with a powerful army, and compelled the English 
monarch to divide his dominions with him. In a month after this 
event, Edmund was murdered at Oxford by the treachery of 
Edric, his brother-in-law, and Canute was acknowledged sole 
monarch of England. He was one of ihe most powerful mon- 
archs of his time, and received the appellation of Great, from his 
talents and the success of his name. The early part of his life 
was stained with acts of cruelty, but the latter part was distin- 
guished for mildness and benevolence. After a reign of eighteen 
years, he died much lamented by his subjects. 

15. Canute was succeeded by his son Harold, whose principal 
amusement was the chase ; he received (he surname of Harefoot, 
from his swiftness in running. He was a prince of a weak and 
profligate character; he reigned only three years, and was suc- 
ceed d by his brother Hardicanute, the last of the Danish kings, 
whose reign was only distinguished for his cruelty and vices. 

16. As the late king left no issue, the English availed them 
selves of this opportunity to shake off" the Danish yoke, and again 
restored the Saxon line in the person of Edward, the brother of 
Ironside. Edward was distinguished for the mildness of his dis- 
position and for his personal virtue. After his death he was 
canonized by the Pope, and received the surname of Confessor. 

"By the death of Edward, England was re-plunged into all the 
miseries of war. As he died without issue, the British sceptre 
was claimed by several competitors, among whom, Harold, son 
of the famous Earl of Godwin, and William Duke of Normandy, 
were the most powerful. Harold, however, being present at 
Kdward's death, quietly stepped into the vacant throne, and was 
joyfully acknowledged by the whole nation. William of Nor- 
mandy resolved 1o assert his claim to the crown of England by 
force of arms. Having collected a numerous fleet, he sailed from 

Who next ascended the throne 1 Who invaded the kingdom? What became of 
Ethelred ? What did the people do ? By whom was F.the.red succeeded ? — 14. Whal 
.s said of Canute? AVliat was he? By what was his early ..i'e stained? — 15. By 
whom was Canute succeeded ? "What is said of liim ?--16. As the king left no issue- 
<tfhat took place? How was Edward distinguished' 1 By whom was the sceptre 
oJauned >. What did Harold do ? What did William resuvc ? 

10 



182 ENGLAND. 

St. Valeria* in France, and landed at fevenwy, in Sussex, with* 
9n army of sixty thousand men. 

17. He was met l>y Harold with an army equally numerous 
The night previous to the engagement, the two armies had pitched 
their camps in sight of each other, and waited with impatience 
for the return of the morning. As soon as the day dawned, they 
were drawn out in array, and awaited the signal for the combat. 
The two monarchs appeared at the head of their armies, William 
on horseback, and Harold on foot, in the centre of the host. 
The memorable battle of Hastings ensued; long and bloody 
was the contest; at length the valor of the English yielded, 
and victory declared in favor of the Normans; the nation sub- 
mitted to the sceptre of William, who in consequence was called 
The Conqueror. 



SECTION III. 

Hie Norman Family ; William I. the Conqueror ; William U.; 
Henry L; Stephen of Blois. From Ji. D. 1066 to 1154. 

1. After the battle of Hastings, the spirit of the English was 
broken ; city after city submitted to the conqueror, until he found I 
himself firmly seated on the English throne. 

Though William was a sovereign possessed of great abilities 
as a statesman and a warrior, yet many of his acte have stamped 
upon his reign the blot of cruelty and oppression. He was re- j 
markable in his person, being tall and well proportioned, audi 
possessed of such strength that few persons of that age were 
found who could bend his bow or wield his arms. 

2. As was natural to expect, he entertained a partiality for his 
Norman followers, and advanced them to all the posts of honor 
and distinction — a measure which did not fail to excite the dis- 
affection of the English subjects, who made several attempts to 
throw off the yoke ; but their endeavors were fruitless and only 
tended to tighten the chains of their bondage. He endeavored, 
in a manner, to abolish the English language, by causing thej 
youth throughout the kingdom to learn the French tongue. No 
other language was used at court, and among the more fashion- 
able society; hence proceeded that mixture of French words i 
which we find at present in the English tongue. Being much 
addicted to the pleasure of the chase, he reserved to himself the 
exclusive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom, and 
formed the New Forest, by depopulating a tract of land nearly 
thirty miles in circuit. One of the most usefui acts of his reign 
was the completing the Dooms-day Book, which contained a 
register of all the estates of his kingdom. 

17. The night previous to the engagement, what is said of the arnves ! Of the twc 
monarch* ? Describe the battle ■ 

1. After the battle of Hastings, what is said of the English? Of William' In his 
person ?--2. AVhat did he entertain ? What did he endeavour to abolish ? What was 
one of the most useful acts of his reign? 



ENGLAND. 183 

3. His domestic repose was somewhat embittered by the dis- 
union of his three sons, who resided in a castle in Normandy. 
He did all that lay in his power to compromise their differences 
without effect. His unnatural son, Robert, openly revolted and 
declared war against his father. William besieged him in the 
castle of Gerberoy, where many encounters took place, resem- 
bling more the combats of chivalry than the contests of hostile 
armies. In one of these, it happened that Robert encountered 
the king himself, who was concealed by a helmet ; a fierce com- 
bat ensued ; at length the young prince wounded and dismounted 
his father. The king called out for assistance; Robert, hearing 
his voice, recognised his parent ; struck with remorse, he alighted 
from his horse, threw himself at the feet of William, and implored 
his pardon; then assisting him to mount, he saw him return to his 
camp. A reconciliation soon after took place, through the interpo- 
sition of his queen, Matilda, whom William tenderly loved. Hav- 
ing reached the sixty-third year of his age, William died on th<* 
continent, at the monastery of St. Gervais, in the thirty-first yea) 
of his conquest of England. 

4. W T illiam II., surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, succeeded 
his father in the English throne, A. D. 1087. His reign was 
marked by many acts of cruelty and perfidy. As he was hunting 
in the New Forest, he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyr- 
rel, who had aimed an arrow at a stag, after a reign of thirteen 
years. 

5. Henry I., the younger brother of William, taking advantage 
of the absence of his brother Robert, the rightful heir, who was 
then on a crusade to the Holy Land, ascended the throne. 
Robert, on his return, made preparations to gain, by force of 
arms, the crown of England, of which he had been deprived 
during his absence. An accommodation, however, was effected 
between the two brothers ; but Henry, shortly after this, infringed 
upon the treaty, and made war upon Normandy; the conquest he 
effected after the severe fought battle of Tenchclray, where Robert 
was taken prisoner. This unfortunate prince was detained in 
custody during the remainder of his life, which lasted twenty- 
eight years, in a castle in Wales; leaving a melancholy proof 
how feeble are the barriers which the nearest ties of kindred can 
afford to the raging impulse of ambition. Henry was rendered 
inconsolable in the latter part of his life by the loss of his only 
son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy; after the 
news of this accident he was never seen to smile. 

Henry was, in many respects, an able and accomplished sove- 
reign, but ambitious and ungrateful. 

6. On his death he left the throne to his daughter, Matilda $ 
but Stephen, Earl of Blois, and nephew to the late king, a noble 
of great ability and unbounded ambition, seized the crown. 

3. What is said ofhis domestic repose? Of his son Robert? What did William do? 
On cue cccasion what happened ? When did he die ? — 4. By whom was William suc- 
ceeded? What was his end? — 5. AVho next ascended the throne? What is said ot 
Kobert? Shortly after this what was done by Henry? How Ion? wns Robert de- 
tamed a prisoner ?— 6. To whom was the throne left 7 What c'ul Matilda determine . 
Who invaded the country ? What cr.sued ? 



184 ENGLAND, 

Matilda immediately determined to assert her right by force of 
arms, and raising an army, she defeated Stephen and took pos- 
session of the throne ; but by a strange occurrence of events, 
which are tedious and by no means interesting, Stephen, in his 
turn, having defeated her and compelled her 10 leave her do- 
minions, again ascended the throne. _ Henry, the son of Matilda, 
resolving to maintain his rightful inheritance to the Eirglish 
crown, invaded the country at the head of a powerful army; but 
an accommodation ensued by which it was agreed that Stephen 
should reign until his death, after which the crown should fall to 
Henry. 



SECTION IV. 

Family of Plant a genet ; Henry II. ; Richard I.; John; Henry 
III ; Edward I. ; Edward II. ; Edward III. ; Richard II. , 
from Ji.D. 1154/0 1399. 

Henry II., in whom were united the families of the Saxon and 
Norman monarchs, now ascended the British throne, at the aga 1 
of twenty-one. By his marriage with Eleanor, heiress of Guicnnr t 
he possessed by inheritance nearly half of France. The mosf 
important achievement of this monarch's life was his invasion and 
subjugation of Ireland, which country has remained, more or less, 
in a state of subjection to the English crown to the present time. 
During the early part of his reign the famous Tlwmas-a-Becket t 
a man of extraordinary abilities, held the first place in the favor 
of the king, who promoted him to the office of high chancellory 
and made him preceptor of the young princes. Becket displayed 
a magnificence equal to his dignity ; his table was free of access 
to every person who had business at court ; he took precedence 
of all the lay barons, and among his vassals he numbered upwards 
of a hundred knights. 

2. Henry lived on terms of the greatest familiarity with his 
chancellor, and seemed to have resigned into his hands the go- 
vernment of his dominions. About this time it happened that the 
see of Canterbury became vacant, and Becket, on account of his 
situation, was pointed to as the person most likely to fill it. 
Accordingly the king sent a message to the chancellor, who was 
then on the continent, to repair to England, intimating to him at 
the same time that in a few days he would be archbishop of Can-; 
terbury. Becket replied that if the king were serious, he begged 
permission to decline the preferment, because it would be impos- 
sible for him to perform the duties of that station, and at the same 
time to retain the favor of his sovereign. But Henry was in- 
flexible, and insisted on his accepting the preferment. Beckel 
at length, much against his own judgment, was induced to acqui 

1. Who now ascended the British throne? Whom did he marry? What was \hi 
most important achievement? What is said c f Thomas-a-Becket? What did he dis- 
play ? — 2. About tins time what happened? What message did the king send? How 
did Becket reply ? What ia said of Henry ? 



ENGLAND. 1S5 

ebce. Shortly after his return to England he was ordained priest, 
and in a few days received episcopal consecration. 
| 3. Becket, whose private life had always been marked by the 
strictest integrity and morality, now began to think more seri- 
ously of acquiring those virtues that more particularly adorn the 
clerical character. The ostentatious parade and worldly pursuits 
of the chancellor were instantly renounced by the archbishop. 
The train of knights and noblemen who were accustomed to 
attend him were exchanged for a few companions, selected from 
among the most virtuous and learned of the clergy. His diet 
was abstemious and his charities were abundant; his time was 
occupied in prayer, study, and in the discharge of his episcopal 
functions ; and as he found it difficult to unite the duties of his 
present station with those of chancellor, he resigned this latter 
office into the hands of the king. 

4. The good understanding which for some time subsisted be- 
tween the primate and the king, was not destined to be of long 
•continuance. Henry began to make encroachments on the rights 
of the church and the clergy ; sought to deprive them of the privi- 
lege of being tried for offences in the ecclesiastical courts, which 
privilege they had enjoyed from a very early period, and required 
that a clergyman, after he had been degraded by the sentence of 
■ his spiritual judges, should be delivered into the custody of a lay 
officer to be punished by the lay tribunal. To this it was replied, 
j that U would be placing the English clergy on a footing inferior 
to their brothers in any other Christian country; it was repug- 
nant to those liberties which the king had sworn to preserve at 
his coronation, and that it violated the iirst principle of law, by re- 
quiring that the same individual should be twice punished for the 

same offence. 

5. The king grew indignant at the opposition of the bishops, 
and in order to bring the matter to an issue, summoned a great 
council to meet at Clarendon. Here, by entreaties, threats, and 
intimidation, he prevailed on the bishops to sign what is called 
the " Constitution of Clareyidon." As several articles in this 
constitution were derogatory to the rights of the church, and in- 
fringed on the papal jurisdiction, by prohibiting appeals to the 
court of Rome without the king's consent, the bishops, in signing 
it, had sacrificed their conscience. 

6. As the primate returned, he meditated in silence on his con- 
tract in the council, and saw the error into which intimidation 
had betrayed him ; he bewailed his fault and immediately retract- 
ed his assent. His conduct inflamed anew the indignation of 
Henry. At length the archbishop thought it prudent to withdraw 
for a season from England, and retired into France. 

7. A reconciliation was soon after effected between Henry and 
the primate, who again returned to England, carrying letters of 

•}. What is now said of Becket? How was his time occupied? — 4. What did Henry 
b.^in to do? What did he require? To this what was replied? — 5. What did ihe 
'-ci:ig summons? Here what did lie prevail on the bishops to sign? What were seve- 
ral art,cles in this constitution ?— 6 As the primate returned, what is said of hun' 
What did he think proper to do ' — 7. A T hat was soon after effected ? 

16* 



186 ENGLAND. 

suspension or excommunication from the pope, against the bishops 
of York, London, and Salisbury. The bishops, on receiving 
these letters, burst into violent complaints against the primate, 
and hastened into Normandy to seek redress from the kinf(. 
Henry, in a moment of irritation, exclaimed, " Of all the cowards 
who eat at my table, is there not one who will free me from this 
turbulent priest." Four of his knights, who were present, taking 
this for the royal approbation, bound themselves by oath to cany 
off or murder the primate. 

8. They immediately set out for England, hastened to Canter 
bury, and entering the palace of the archbishop, they upbraided 
him with insolence to the king. As they left his apartment, the! 
hour for vespers arrived, and the undaunted prelate went unat- 
tended to the cathedral. He was ascending the steps of the choir 
when the assassins entered the church. One of the number cried 
out, '* Where is the traitoi ?" To this no answer was returned. 
I3ut when another asked, " Where is the archbishop?" the pre- 
late replied, "Here is the archbishop, but no traitor." Upon 
this one of the assassins aimed a blow which wounded him on 
the head. As he felt the blood trickling down his face, hci 
clasped his hands, and bowing down, he said, "In the name of 
Christ and for the defence of his church, I am ready to die." 
In this posture, he turned towards his murderers, and under 
their repeated blows he sunk to the floor, at the foot of St. Ben- 
neVs altar. 

9. Thus perished this extraordinary man, a martyr to what lie) 
deemed his duty, the preservation of the privileges and immunk 
ties of the church. His death vyas the triumph of his cause; thei 
church seemed to derive new vigor from the blood of her cham- 
pion. The first news of this e\ ent filled Henry with consternation 
and alarm ; he now lamented when too late the hasty expression* 
that had led to the commission of so terrible a crime. But sub- 
sequent events caused the monarch to think more seriously on 
this transaction than at present. Some few years afterwards he 
beheld his own sons uniting in rebellion against him, in conjunc- 
tion with his perfidious barons. Such things, he concluded, were 
not in the ordinary course of nature; they could be no other than 
the effects of the divine wrath which he had enkindled by his 
persecution of the archbishop. 

10. The name of the prelate had been lately enrolled by the 
pope in the catalogue of the saints, and the fame of the miracles I 
wrought at his shrine resounding through every part of Europe 
Henry, to expiate his offence, resolved to make a pilgrimage t( 
the tomb of the martyr. For this purpose he hastily set sail foi 
England, and when he came within sight of Canterbury, he dis- 
mounted from his horse and walked, without any covering on his 

What did the bishops do on receiving these letters? What did Henry exclaim 
What did the four knights do ? — 8. As they left his apartment what took place ? Wha 
did one of their number cry out? What did the prelate reply? Upon this what wai 
done ? In bowing down what did he say ? — 9. What is said of Henry at the first new 
Of this event? Some years afterwards, what did he behold ? What did he conclude 
—10. What is said of the name of the prelate ? What did Henry resolve »o do? Re 
iatc what followed 



ENGLAND. 187 

leet, towards the city; as he entered the gate, it was observed 
that his footsteps were stained with blood. Without making- any 
delay, he hastened to the cathedral, and there threw himself at 
the foot of the tomb, while the bishop of London addressed the 
. spectators. As soon as the prelate had concluded his discourse, 
Henry arose and repaired to the chapter-house of the convent, 
where the monks, a few bishops and abbots were assembled. 
Before them, the royal penitent, on his knees, confessed his 
crime, and received on his shoulders, with a knotted cord, a few 
stripes from each. After this extraordinary act of humiliation he 
returned again to the shrine, and spent the night in prayer. 

11. The latter part of his life was embittered by the unnatural 
conduct of his sons, who joined in a second rebellion against their 
father, aided by the king of France. On receiving a list of those 
who had conspired to deprive him of his crown, the first name 
that caught his eye was that of his favorite son, John. He read 
no more, but returned the paper with a broken heart. At first he 
sunk into a deep melancholy ; this was followed by a raging fever, 
during which he called down the heaviest denunciations of hea- 
ven on his ungrateful children. He died in the fifty-eigth yeai 
of his age and thirty-fifth of his reign. Henry, in many respects, 
maybe ranked among the ablest of the English monarchs. He 
possessed distinguished abilities as a statesman and warrior; yet 
his private life was far from being commendable; pride, passion, 
duplicity, and ambition, seem to have been the most prominent 
features of his character. 

12. Richard I., surnamed Cceur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, 
now ascended the throne, and endeavored to atone, in some mea- 
sure, for his ungrateful conduct towards his father, by renouncing 
those who had assisted in the unnatural rebellion, and receiving 
into his favor the ministers of the former reign. Richard was a 
prince of a chivalrous and romantic turn of mind. Shortly after 
his accession to the throne, he engaged in the crusades, and in 
conjunction with Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an ex 
pedition to the Holy Land. Here his personal valor was con- 
spicuous in every engagement; he defeated the celebrated 
Saladin, in the memorable battle of Ascalon, in which forty 
thousand Saracens were slain, and finally compelled him to con- 
clude a treaty of peace. 

13. On his return homeward, being shipwrecked, he endeavored 
to pass in disguise through Germany, but was discovered and de- 
tained a prisoner by the emperor, Henry VI., who released him 
after a long confinement, on the payment of ^6300,000. Haying 
regained hts liberty, he returned to his own dominions, from 
which he had been absent for nearly four years. The year fol- 
lowing, having laid siege to the castle of Chalus, he received a 
wound of which he died, in the tenth year of his reign, and the 
forty-second of his age. Richard has been styled the Achilles of 

11. What is said of the latter iart of his life ? What are the circumstances of his 
death? AVhen did he die ? What is said of him ?■— 12. Who succeeded to the throno? 
In what did he engage? Whom did he defeat ?— 13. On his return, what napr ened to 
him ? What occasioned his death ? What is sa d of Ricnara f 



188 ENGLAND. 

modern times; his achievements more resemble the deeds of a 
hero of romance, than those of a wise and political sovereign. 

14. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded to the throne; his 
reign is regarded as one of the most infamous in English history. 
Mis nephew, Arthur, the son of Geoffrey, an elder brother, was 
the rightful heir to the crown. The young prince happened to 
fall into the power of John, by whom he was basely murdered, 
lest at any future period he might assert his claim. This act of 
treachery excited universal disgust. Philip Augustus, of France, 
supported the claim of Arthur, and to avenge his death, deprived 
the English monarch of his French possessions. 

15. John, although his queen was yet alive, indulged a passion 
for Isabella, daughter of Aymar, Count of Angoulcme, a lady 
who had been already betrothed to the Count de le Marehc, 
yet by reason of her age, the marriage had not been consummated. 
Having procured a divorce from his own wife, he espoused Isa-: 
bel-la. The sovereign pontiffs, during the Middle Ages, were 
frequently called on to interpose their spiritual power, to shield 
the people from oppression, and to arrest the vices and check (lie 
passions of their rulers, and even the jurisprudence of that period 
acceded to the pope, on some extraordinary occasions, the power 
of absolving the people from their allegiance to their sovereign. 

1G. On this occasion, Innocent III. remonstrated with John 
without effect. Another circumstance which happened at this; 
time, caused the pope to put in execution the full extent of his, 
spiritual power. It had been a custom from an. early period, in 
England, to consult the king in the appointment of a bishop to 
fi!l°any of the vacant sees. It happened at this time, that the: 
bishopric of Canterbury became vacant, and Lancton was chosen 
to fill it ; the pope thought proper to depart from the usual cus-' 
torn, and confirmed the appointment without consulting the king, 
whose late conduct had given so much scandal to his subjects. 
John, highly incensed at this, sent two of his knights to expel the: 
monks from the convent, and vented his rage on all who had any 
hand in the instrument. For this infringement of his spiritual, 
jurisdiction, the pope proceeded to place the kingdom under an 
Interdict, an instrument which was only resorted to on extraordi-i 
nary occasions, and one calculated to strike the mind with sensa 
tions of awe. 

17. While it remained in force, the nation was deprived of all 
the exterior exercises of religion; the altars were despoiled of 
their ornaments ; the crosses, relics, pictures, and statues of the. 
saints, were laid on the ground and covered up; the bells were 
removed from the churches; mass was celebrated with closed 
doors ; the laity partook of no religious rites except baptism, and 
communion to the dying ; the dead were not interred in conse- 
crated ground, and marriage was celebrated in the churchyard. 

IS. John, at length overcome by the evils which he had brought 

14 Who succeeded to the throne ? What act of treachery did he commit? Of what 
Was he deprived ? — 15. What is now related of John ? What is said of the sovereign 
pontifTs? — 16. Relate the circumstance which caused the pope to put in execution the 
extent of his spiritual power ? To what did the pope now proceed ?— 17. While it rt> 
m lined in force, of what was the kingdom deprived? 



ENGLAND 189 

vii Lis kingdom, yielded his obstinacy, became reconciled to the 
::bmch, and fearful of the. invasion of the French monarch, lie 
iui rendered his crown to the pope, from whom he consented tc 
lold it as a vassal. ^ In the mean time, his natural disposition for 
tyranny seemed to increase ; he despised his nobles, an([ sought 
ivery opportunity of infringing upon their privileges. The barons 
\t length, unable to support his tyrannical exactions, under the 
lirection of Lancton, the primate, formed a confederacy against 
v .im. They met at Ihmnymcdc, and compelled him, after much 
^position, to sign and seal the famous document of Magna 
\UiUirta, which is even now regarded as the great bulwark of 
English liberty, and by which important liberties and privileges 
ire secured to every order of men in the kingdom, A. I). 1215 
folin died the following year, after an odious reign of eighteen 
fears, with scarcely a single virtue to redeem a thousand vices. 

His son, Henry III. succeeded to the throne at the age of nine 
Vears, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pembroke. The 
listory of this reign consists of little more than a recital of a 
series of internal contests between the king and his turbulent 
mrons. Henry was a weak and timid prince; gentle and mild 
n his disposition ; but he greatly displeased the nation by his par 
iiaiity to foreigners. 

The barons, with the Earl of Leicester at their head, took up 
inns and compelled the king to resign his authority to twenty 
four of their number, and having thus divided all the offices of the 
government among themselves, they disregarded the privileges 
nf the crown and trampled on the rights of the people. But the 
knights of the Shire, who now began to assemble separately from 
'the lords, indignant at the usurpation of Leicester and his con- 
federate barons, took up arms in favor of the king. A battle 
was fought at Lewes, in which the royal army was defeated, and 
the king, with his son Edward, was made prisoner. 

19. Leicester now compelled the king to ratify his authority by 
a solemn treaty.; assumed the character of regent, and called a 
parliament, consisting of two knights from each shire, and de- 
puties from the principal boroughs. From this period is generally 
dated the first outline of the present English House of Commons. 
Young Edward having at length regained his liberty, in conjunc 
tion with the Duke of Gloucester, took the field against Leices- 
ter, who was defeated and slain in the famous battle of Evesham. 
j Henry was again restored to the throne, but died shortly after 
this event, in "the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the fifty-sixth 
of his reign, A. D. 1272. 

20. Edward, who had early given indications of distinguished 
military abilities, was absent on a crusade at the time of his 
lathers death. On one occasion, as he sat in his tent, an assassin 
entered and aimed a poisoned arrow at his breast ; he found 

IS. Fearful of the invasion of the French monarch, what did John do ? What is satd 
of the barons ? Where did they meet? What was he aompelled to sign? When did 
Jo.m die ? Who succeeded ? What is said of his history ? What was he compelled 
to do by the barons? What battle was fought?— 19. What did Leicester now do? 
What is said of voting Edward t What is said of Henry ?— 20. What is said of fid* 
* r ard ? On one occasion what happened ? 



190 ENGLAND 

means to ward off the blow, but received a wound in his arm 
His devoted queen, Eleanor of Castile, saved his lile at the evi- 
dent risk of her own, by extracting the poison by applying hei 
mouth to the wound He had advanced as far as Sicily on his 
return, when he received information of his father's death. 

21. On his arrival in England, he was received with joy by all 
classes of the people, and immediately turned his attention to- 
wards removing the disorders which tilled the state during the 
preceding' reign. Having restored order and tranquillity at home, 
ne turned his arms towards the subjugation of Wales, and having 
defeated and slain Llewellyn, the king, he annexed that country 
to the British crown, and created his eldest son Prince of Water. 
a title which at the present time distinguishes the oldest son of I 
the English monarch. Edward was shortly afterwards madeum 
pire, in a dispute between Robert Bruce and John Baliol, respect 
ing the succession of the Scottish throne. He adjudged the 
crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vassal of the English 
monarch. He, however, threw off his allegiance, and Edward 
invaded Scotland with a powerful army, defeated the Scots in 
the battle of Dunbar, subdued the kingdom, and carried Baliol I 
captive to England. 

22. The Scots, who had unwillingly submitted to the yoke of 
subjugation, were roused to assert their independence through the | 
influence of the renowned hero, Sir William Wallace; but after 
a series of brilliant achievements, their efforts failed for the pre- 
sent ; the illustrious Wallace was basely betrayed into the hands ; 
of Edward, and. put to death with barbarous cruelty. They found, , 
however, a more successful champion in the person of Robert 
Bruce, grandson of Baliol, who, after he had expelled the British 
from the country, was restored to the throne of his ancestors. 
Edward having made preparation for a second invasion of Scot 
land, died at Carlisle, in the thirty -fifth year of his reign. Ed 
ward was eminently distinguished as a legislator and warrior, 
but his cruelty towards the Jews, and his cold-blooded massacre 
of the bards of Wales, have stamped upon his memory an indeli- 
ble blot of tyranny and rapacity. 

23. Edward II. succeeded his father to the throne, and imme 
diately invaded Scotland with an army of one hundred thousand 
men, which was met at Bannockburn by Robert Bruce, with 
thirty thousand. A dreadful conflict ensued, in which the Eng- 
lish were signally defeated. Edward possessed but few qualities 
to distinguish him as a sovereign ; he was miid in disposition, but 
weak and indolent, fond of pleasure, and allowed himself to be 
governed by unworthy favorites, which excited against him the 
turbulent spirit of his barons, and filled his reign with civil dis 
sensions. 

24. Isabella, his queen, a woman of the most infamous charac • 

21. Edward having- restored tranquillity at home, what did he do ? Being made um 

5 lire between Bruce "and Baliol, to w;iom did he adjudge the crown ? What is said of 
laliol? What did Edward do? — 2C. By whom were the Scots roused to assert their 
independence ? What was the fate of Wallace ? In whom did they find a more suc- 
cessful champion ? Mow was Edward distimruished ?— 23. What did Edward II. do * 
What is said of him?— 21. What is said of Isabella, his queen? What was the fate o( 
Edwaid? 



ENGLAND. 19J 

Ur, fixed her affections upon Mortimer, a young and powerful 
baron, with whom she entered into a conspiracy against the king, 
and compelled him to resign in favor of his son. Edward was 
cast into prison, and barbarously murdered at the instigation of 
Isabella, in Berkeley Castle, A. D. 1328. 

25. Edward III. succeeded to the throne in the fourteenth year 
of his age. During his minority, a regency of twelve person? 
was appointed; yet Mortimer and the infamous queen maintained 
(heir power and exercised the chief control. Almost the first act 
of Edward, on coming of age, was to punish the murderers of his 
unhappy father. Mortimer was publicly executed ; Isabella was 
confined in the castle of Risings, where she remained for twenty- 
eight years, a memorable example of blasted ambition. Edward's 
first expedition was against the Scots, whom he defeated with 
great slaughter in the battle of Hallidon Hill. 

26. He claimed the crown of France, which he pretended he 
inherited from his mother, and resolved to maintain it by force 
of arms, in opposition to Philip of Valois, who had ascended the 
French throne. Having collected a powerful armament of two 
hundred and fifty sail, he departed from England, and having 
encountered a French fleet of four hundred ships on the coast ot 
Flanders, he gained one of the most memorable naval victories 
recorded in history. The loss of the English is said to have been 
only four thousand men and two ships, while thirty thousand of 
the French fell in the engagement, with the loss of two hundred 
and thirty of their vessels. 

27. He then invaded the country at the head of thirty thousand 
troops, and spread devastation wherever he advanced. He met 
the French monarch, who advanced to oppose, at the head of an 
army of one hundred thousand men, and defeated him in the 
famous battle of Cressy. This battle is rendered memorable for 
being the first in which the English made use of cannon; also for 
being the scene in which Edward, the Black Prince, (so called 
from the color of his armor,) the king's eldest son, then in the 
sixteenth year of his age, commenced his brilliant military career. 
While the battle raged in its greatest fury, a messenger was 
despatched desiring that succour might be sent to the aid of the 
Prince; Edward replied to the messenger, " Go tell my son, that 
I reserve for him the glory of this day; he will be able, without 
my aid, to repel the enemy." Edward having taken the city of 
Calais, after a memorable siege, returned again to England. 

28. While the English monarch was conducting his conquests 
on the continent, the Scots made an irruption into his dominions 
at home, but were defeated in a battle at Neville^s Cross by Phi- 
lippa, his heroic queen, and their king was led captive to London. 

John, who succeeded his father in the throne of France, resolved 
to expel the English from his dominions, and took the field with 

25. Wno exceeded lo the throne? What was his first act on cominjr of ago? 
What was the fate of Mortimer and Isabella? — 2(>. What did he claim? What "did 
he do? What was the loss on both sides?— 27. What did he then do? By whom 
was he met? For what is the battle memorable? While the battle raged, wnaj 
w« dore?— 28. AVhile the English monarch, &c, what did the Scots dc* \\ nat baule 
was fought? Wh<it dH the S'n? of France resolve.' 



192 ENGLAND 

an army of sixty thousand men. He was met by (he Black Prince 
and defeated in the memorable battle of Poictiers, in which he 
was made prisoner and conducted to London by the Prince, 
where he was detained a fellow captive with David, the Scottish 

29. Edward, who in the early part of his life had .acquired such 
brilliant military renown, towards the end of his reign sunk intcj 
indolence and indulgence, and before his death he had lost all 
his conquests with the exception of Calais. The death of the 
Black Prince, whose heroic deeds were only surpassed by the 
amiable virtues that adorned his mind, filled the nation with sor- 
row and left his father disconsolate for the loss. The king only 
survived this event a few months; he died in the sixty-fifth year 
of his age and fifty-first of his reign, A. D. 1377. 

30. Edward was one of the most illustrious princes of his age. 
His military achievements in France and Scotland, though unjust 
in their object, cast a lustre on his reign and render it one of the 
most brilliant recorded in English history. During his reign. 
Chivalry was carried to its height in England. Edward himself 
and his son, the Black Prince, possessed in a high degree all the 
accomplishments of the knightly character. He instituted the 
order of the Garter, and also built 1 he magnificent castle of Wind- 
sor. The French language was discontinued in courts of justice 
during his reign. 

31. Edward was succeeded by Richard IT., son of the Black 
Prince, at the age of eleven years. During his minority the ad- 
ministration of the government was intrusted to his uncles, the 
dukes of Lancaster, Fork, and Gloucester; of these, however, the 
duke of Lancaster acted the most prominent part. In the ear »y 
part of his reign the parliament levied a poll-tax of three groats 
upon all over the age of fifteen years. This gave great dissatis- 
faction on account of its injustice in exacting as much from the 
poor as from the rich. 

32. The flame of insurrection spread through Ihe kingdom. 
The insurgents found a leader in the person of Wat Tyler, a 
blacksmith by profession, who in a short time finding himself at 
the head of one hundred thousand followers, led them to Smith- 
field, where the king invited him to a conference. His haughty 
demeanor here excitedthe indignation of one of the king's^ at- 
tendants, who struck him dead upon the spot. This rash act, 
committed in the presence of the mutineers, would have proved 
fatal to the king and his attendants, had it not been for'the pre- 
sence of mind displayed by the youthful prince, who riding up 
towards them while their bows were bent for execution, exclaim- 
ed, " What, my people! will you kill your king? I myself will 
be your leader; follow me into the field and you shall have what 
you desire.*' 

By whom was he met ? Where was he conducted ?— 00. What is now said of Ed* 
waid? When dill lie die? — 30. What was Edward? What is said of his military 
achievements? What did he institute? What was discontinued? — 31. By whom was 
Edward succeeded ? In Ine early part of his reitrn, what was done? — 32. What fol- 
lower " Who was the leader of the insurgents? What was the fate of Tyler? Ilidi )£ 
up tc ate insurgents, whet' did the k nj; exclaim? 



ENGLAND. 193 

33. The flattering hopes which the. nation had formed of Rich- 
ard's future greatness from his conduct on this occasion, greatly 
declined as he advanced in years. The northern borders weie 
thrown into disorder by the rivalship between the family of Percy, 
of the north of England, and the house of Douglas, of Scotland. 
A sanguinary battle was fought at Otterburn, in which Percy, 
eurnamed Hotspur, was taken prisoner and Douglas siain. On 
this battle is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace. 

34. While Richard was absent in Ireland to quell an insurrec- 
tion in that country, the young Duke of Lancaster excited a revolt 
against his authority in England. The king, on his return, after 
undergoing a mock trial, was compelled to resign his crown; 
whi^e the duke in the mean time ascended the throne under the 
title of Henry IV., A. D. 1399. 

The deposed monarch was imprisoned in the castle of Pom/ret, 
where he was shortly afterwards put to death in the most cruel 
manner. 



SECTION V. 

Hranch of Lancaster; Henry IV.; Henry V.; Henry VI.. front, 
A.D. 1399/0 1461. 

1. Henry thus succeeded to the throne by the deposition and 
murder of his lawful sovereign, and to the exclusion of the right- 
ful heir, Edward Mortimer, whose descendants, as we will see 
in the sequel, after a series of contests between the York and 
Lancaster families, succeeded in establishing their disputed claim 
to the crown. Henry soon found that the diadem that glitters 
upon the brow of monarchs bears with it an empty name, and 
conceals beneath its splendor a thousand imbittering cares un- 
known to the man of the humbler walks of life. 

2. Scarcely was he seated on the throne when an insurrection 
was raised against him, headed by Northumberland, and joined 
by the Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owen (Jlen- 
dower; but they were defeated by the royal forces in a desperate 
battle fought at Shrewsbury. The latter part of his life was im- 
bittered by the profligate conduct of his son, the Prince of YVales. 
On a certain occasion, one of his companions was indicted for 
some misdemeanor before the chief justice, Sir William Gas- 
coigne; the young prince, who M'as present, became so exaspe- 
rated at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open 
court. The venerable magistrate, impressed with the dignity of 
his office, ordered the prince to be committed to prison; the 
prince willingly submitted to the order of the judge. When the 

33. What is said of the hopes the r.ation had formed of Richard? Where vn:« a 
battle fought ? What haljad was founded on it? — 34. What is said of Richard while 
absent in Ireland? On his return, what took place? AVhat became of the deposed 
monarch? 

1. What is said of Henry? What did he soon find? — 2. By whom was an Jtisurrec 
tection headed? "What is said of the latter part of his life? What .s reiuict) of Cbici 
• ustice G'ascoigne? 

17 



194 ENGLAMj. 

circumstance was related to the king, he exclaimed, " Happy is 
the king who has a magistrate endowed with courage to execute 
laws upon such an offender; still more happy in having a son 
who is willing to submit to such a chastisement." Henry died in 
the forty-sixth year of his age, and fourteenth of his reign, A. D 
1413. 

3. Henry Y., on succeeding to the throne, agreeably surprised 
the nation by a sudden reformation of his conduct. Calling to- 
gether ail hi? abandoned companions, he acquainted them of his 
design, and forbade them to appear in his presence until they had 
followed his example. He received with^ respect the faithful 
ministers of his father; commended Gascoigne for his impartial 
conduct, and exhorted him to continue in ? strict execution of the 
laws. 

4. Henry having revived his claim to the crown of France, and 
taking advantage of the internal disorders of tligt kingdom, in- 
vaded the country at the head of only fifteen thousand men, and 
defeated the French army amounting to sixty thousand men, in 
the famous battle of Agincourt. The French lost, on this memo- 
rable occasion, eleven thousand killed and fourteen thousand 
prisoners, while the English lost only forty slain. After having 
reduced Normandy, he was declared regent of France and ac- 
knowledged heir to the crown. But having reached the summit 
of earthly glory, his brilliant career was cut short by the hand of 
death; he died in the thirty -fourth year of his age and the tenth 
of his reign, A. D. 1422. 

5. Henry VI., on the death of his father, succeeded to the 
throne at the age often months, and was proclaimed king of Eng- 
land and of France. During his minority, his uncles, the dukes ot 
Bedford and Gloucester were appointed protectors of his domi- 
nions, the former of France, and the latter of England. The 
French considering this a favorable moment, resolved to shake 
off the English yoke, and again assert the independence of their 
country. In this they succeeded, and Charles VII., the Dauphin, 
recovered by degrees the greater part of his kingdom. 

6. The city of Orleans was so situated between the provinces 
possessed by Charles, and those commanded by the regent, that 
it afforded an easj' access to either. To this point, therefore, the 
forces of each were directed ; the French to defend, the English 
to reduce it. At length, after the French were reduced to the 
last extremity, the English were compelled to raise the siege 
through the courage of the renowned heroine, Joan of Arc, and 
shortly after they were deprived of all their possessions in France 
except Calais. 

7. Henry, as he advanced in years, exhibited a mild and inof- 
fensive disposition ; he might, perhaps, have reigned with credit at 
some less turbulent period, but he was ill calculated to manage 

What did the king exclaim ? When did Henry die?— 3. What is said cf Flc.niy V.? 
Whom did he receive?— 4. What did he revive? What battle did he gain? Whai 
was the loss on both sides? What did he d e?— 5. Who succeeded? Who were ap- 
pointed protectors? What did the French resolve ?—G. What is said of Orleans! 
flow was the siege of the eit." raised ?— 7. What is said of Henry f 



ENGLAND. 195 

the reins of government at the time in which he lived. He mar- 
ried Margaret of Anjou, daughter of the king of Sicily, a woman 
of a heroic mind, and eminently distinguished for the part she 
bore in the wars that distracted his reign. The insurrection ot 
Jack Cade was an event of considerable importance. Cade, under 
the assumed name of John Mortimer, collected an army of twen- 
ty thousand followers, but was defeated and slain. 

8. The Duke of Gloucester was heir to the crown in case the 
king died without issue ; he had opposed the marriage of Henry 
with Margaret, a circumstance which did not fail to render him 
odious in the eyes of the queen, and his death took place a short 
time after, in a very suspicious manner. This event, in connec- 
tion with the weak character of the king, encouraged the Duke 
of York to assert his claim to the crown. At this period, the san- 
guinary contest between the houses of York and Lancaster was 
commenced, and by it England was for thirty years a subject of 
dispute ; the nation was drenched in all the horrors of civil war, 
involving alike the inmates of the cottage and the castle ; all the 
social ties of affection seemed rent asunder; often was the father 
armed against his son ; the son against his father ; brother against 
brother, and the nearest friends against each other. The adhe- 
rents of the house of Lancaster chose a red rose as a symbol of 
their party, while the house of York wore the white rose ; hence 
these wars are known by the contest between the two roses. 
More than one hundred thousand men during this contest were 
sacrificed to the unhallowed shrine of ambition. 

9. In the battle of St. Albans the Lancasterians were defeated, 
and the king taken prisoner; but queen Margaret still kept the 
field, and gained the battle ot Wakefield, in which the Duke of 
York was defeated and slain. But Edward, his son, inherited all 
the ambition and abilities of his father ; he was then in the bloom 
of youth, remarkable for the beauty of his person, his bravery and 
affability, which gained him the affection of the people. Confiding 
in his popularity more than in his right to the crown, he entered 
London with a numerous army, amidst the shouts of the citizens, 
and was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward IV., A D. 
1401. 



SECTION VI. 

ftranch of York; Edward IV.; Edward V.; Richard 1 II, from 
A. D. 1461 to 1485. 

1. Edward, who had now attained the summit of his ambition ? 
sorn found that the throne was not a place for the enjoyment of 
tranquillity and repe«e- The undaunted Margaret, having col- 

Whom did lie marry ? What insurrection took place ? — 8. What is said of the Duke 
3f Gloucester ? At this period what commenced? What is said cf this contest? What 
were the symbols of each parly? How many were sacrificed ? — 9. What hap- 
pened in the battle of St. A bans ? What is said of Edward ? Confiding in his popu- 
larity, what did lie do ? 

I. What is sai J of Edward' 



196 ENGLAND. 

lected an army of sixty thousand men, again took the field against 
liim. Edward, and the Earl of Warwick, at the head of an army 
much inferior in number, marched to oppose her. A tremendous 
battle was fought at Towton, in which Edward gained a deci- 
sive victory, leaving thirty-six thousand Englishmen dead upon 
the field. 

2. The unfortunate queen, with no other attendant than her 
son, a boy about eight years of age, while flying from her ene- 
mies, was benighted in Hexham forest, and fell into the hands of 
ruffians, who despoiled her of her jewels, and treated her with 
the greatest indignity; they however disputed about the spoils, 
and while engaged in dispute, she effected her escape with her 
eon into the thickest of the forest. _ But when overcome with 
fright and fatigue, and about to sink in despair, she was sudden- 
ly aroused by the approach of a robber with a drawn sword. 
Finding no possible means of escaping, she determined to throw 
herself upon his generosity. She arose as he approached, and 
said, " Friend, here is the son of your king ; I commit him to your 
protection." The man, pleased with the confidence placed in 
him, offered every assistance in his power, and safely conducted 
her, with her son, to a sea-port, from which she escaped, and 
sailed for Flanders. 

3. Edward now finding himself securely seated on the throne, 
began to exhibit the bias of his character. The Earl of War- 
wick, the most powerful nobleman in England, and one of the 
greatest generals of his time, had been commissioned to France 
to procure Bona of Savoy, as queen for the young monarch 
While he was absent, Edward happened, during a hunting party, 
to pay a visit to the Dutchess of Bedford, at Grafton, and saw, 
for the first time, the young and beautiful lady Elizabeth Gray, 
daughter of the dutchess. Struck with her beauty and accom- 
plishments, he raised her to the throne, forgetful of his engage 
ments with Bona of Savoy. 

4. The Duke, on his return to England, was inflamed with in 
dignation, and leaving the court in disgust, he retired to France^ 
where he entered into a league with Queen Margaret, and es- 
poused the interest of the fallen monarch. Through his exertions 
Edward was deposed, and Henry, after haying remained a pri- 
soner in the Tower for six years, was again reinstated on the 
throne. Thus Warwick having restoi ed Henry, whom he deposed, 
and now having removed Edward, whom he had raised to the 
throne, obtained the title of King-maker. Edward, who had re- 
tired to the court of the Duke of Burgundy, shortly after returned 
with reinforcements, and defeated "the forces of Henry in the 
bloody battle of Barnet, in which the brave Warwick was slain. 

5. The intrepid Margaret, on learning this overthrow, yielded 
to h«sr destiny almost in despair, and bursting into a flood of 

Of Margaret? What battle was fought?— 2. What is related of the unfortunate 
queen? Findingno means of esc; rving, what did she do? What did ihe mar. offer 
and do?— 3. What is now said of Edward ? Where was the Earl of Warwick sent! 
During his absence what took place ,<—\. What is said of the Duke on his return tc 
England ? Through his exertions what was done ? What was he styled ? What did 
Edward aga n do ?— 5. What is said of Margaret ? 



ENGLAND. 197 

grief, she retired to an abbey in Hampshire. But at the urgent 
solicitation of her adherents, she again left her retreat, and made 
2. last and desperate effort to regain the crown in the battle of 
Tewkesbury, which blighted for ever the last remnant of her hopes 
She was taken prisoner with her son; the king asked the prince 
how he dared to invade his dominions, to which (he youthful Ed- 
ward replied, ''I have entered the dominions of my father, to 
avenge his injuries, and to redress my own." The ungenerous king, 
enraged at this magnanimous reply, struck the prince with his 
gauntlet ; some of his attendants taking this as a signal for further 
violence, hurried the prince into the next apartment and dis 
patched him with their daggers. 

6. The unhappy queen, alter sustaining the cause of her hus 
band in twelve different battles, after surviving her friends, hei 
children, and her fortune, passed the remainder of her days an 
exile in France, where she died in obscurity and neglect. Henry 
terminated his eventful life by assassination in prison. Edward 
IV. passed the remainder of his reign in acts of tyranny and 
cruelty. He caused his brother, the Duke of Clarence, to be con- 
demned for a trifling offence, and being allowed to choose the 
manner of his death, he was drowned in a cask of Malmsey wine. 

These acts of cruelty were soon terminated by the death of the 
king himself; he died in the forty-second year of his age, A. I). 
1482. During this monarch's reign, the art of printing was in- 
troduced into England, by Edward Claxton of London. 

7. Edward IV. left two sons ; the oldest being only thirteen 
years of age, succeeded to the throne under the title of Edward V 
The Duke of Gloucester, brother of the late king, being appointed 
protector during the young king's minority, after causing lord 
Hastings, and other distinguished persons, to be put to death 
without trial, seized upon the crown, under the pretence that his 
nephews were illegitimate, and caused himself to be proclaimed 
king, by the title of Richard III. The two young princes shortly 
afterwards disappeared, and are said to have been smothered in 
the Tower by the order of the king himself. 

8. Richard, who had gained the throne by imbruing his hands in 
the blood of lawful heirs, was not destined long to enjoy the ill- 
gotten crown. Henry ludor, the Earl of Richmond, the only 
surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, advanced his title to the 
rroivn, and assisted by the king of France, once more revived the 
almost extinguished spirit of his party. A decisive battle was 
fought at Bosworth, in which Richard was slain ; his rival was 
crowned upon the field of battle, and assumed the title of Hen- 
ry VII. 

This event terminated the long and bloody contest between the 
houses of York and Lane r, which had entailed so many evils 

At the solicitation of her adh ' she again do? What was her fntc? 

What was the reply of the yo hat was his end ? — C. What is raid 

of the unhappy queen ? Of 1 IV. ? What did he cause ? When 

did he die? Ev whom was j 7. What did Edward leave? What 

did the Duke of Gloucester - "the two young princes ?— 8. What is 

said of Richard ' Of He '..as the battle fought? What was the 



result ? 



* 



198 ENGLAND. 

upon the nation, and reduced it almost to a state of barbarism 
the arts of peace being entirely neglected for those of war. 



SECTION VII. 

7\tdor Family ; Henry VII. ; Henry VIII. ; Edward VI. ; 
Mary; Elizabeth ; from A. D. 1485 to 1603. 

1. The succession of Henry to the throne was an event highly 
favourable to the nation, as it put an end to the ruinous civil wars 
that had so long devastated the kingdom. By marrying Eliza- 
beth, daughter of Edward IV., he strengthened his claim, and 
thus united the two houses of Lancaster and York. The early 
part of his reign was disturbed by the appearance of two succes 
she pretenders to the throne; the one in the person of Lambert 
Simnel, the son of a baker, who attempted to counterfeit the Earl 
of Warwick; the other was one Perkin Warbeck, who made an 
attempt to counterfeit the Duke of York, who had been murdered 
in the Tower, by order of Richard III. 

2. Lambert, after being proclaimed king of England and Ire- 
land at Dublin, was made prisoner, but Henry, instead of con- 
signing him to the scaffold, made him a servant in his kitchen ; 
Warbeck, however, supported his cause for some time with better 
success ; many of the nobility flocked to his standard, and he was 
acknowledged as sovereign of England by the kings of France 
and Scotland. After a variety of adventures, he surrendered 
himself to the king under a promise of pardon ; but having been 
detected in a conspiracy with the Earl of Warwick, to effect their 
escape from the Tower by murdering the lieutenant, he was 
hanged at Tyburn, and the earl was oeheaded. 

3. After a prosperous reign of about twenty-four years, Henry 
began to think of preparing for the last and trying scene of life ; 
naving ordered in his will that restoration should be made to all 
whom he might have injured, he died in the fifty-second year of 
his age. Henry, in many respects, may be considered, if not the 
most conspicuous, at least one of the most useful monarchs that 
occupied the throne of England from the days of Alfred. He 
was a prince equally distinguished for his wisdom in the cabinet 
and conduct in the field ; he enacted many wise and salutary 
laws ; encouraged industry and extended commerce ; allowed the 
nobles to dispose of their estates, by which means their powei 
was weakened, while property and equality were more widelj 
diffused among all orders of the stai 

4. It was during his reign thai Gopher Columbus, a native 
of Genoa, sailed on his cele 1 ^ , by which he discovered 
the Western World. A prevented Henry from 
naving a share in that hono rise. However, a few 

1. What is said of Henry's aecessk narry? By what was his 

reign disturbed? Who were they ?—. "-ambert? Of Warbeck • 

What was their fate? — 3. After a reign of what did lie begin to j 

think? In many respects, what may Hen What did he enact, <fcc- 

—4 During his reign, what took placid ji 



ENGLAND. 199 

years after the first voyage made by Columbus, the English mo- 
narch employed Sebastian Cabot, a native of Bristol, who dis- 
covered the mainland of America, also the hie of Newfoundland 
and the coast of llrginia. The greatest stain upon the character 
of this monarch was his avarice ; by his frugality and exactions, 
he accumulated immense wealth, and at his death he is said to 
have left in money the sum of £1,800,000, equal to £10,000,000 
at the present day. 

5. Henry VII I. succeeded to the throne under the most fa- 
vorable auspices ; his title to the crown was undisputed ; the 
treasury well filled ; the nation at peace; the country prosperous 
and happy. lie possessed every quality that might endear him to 
the affections of his people ; he was in the eighteenth year of his 
age, of a handsome person, polite in his deportment, frank and 
open in his disposition, and possessed an accomplished education. 
But we will see in the sequel of his history, that all these pro- 
mising qualities, as he advanced in years, degenerated into the 
most detestable vices, and that Henry became one of the most 
cruel, unprincipled and rapacious tyrants that ever disgraced a 
throne. 

6. By his prodigality and profusion he soon exhausted the trea 
sury, which he found replenished when he ascended the throne. 
In the early part of his reign, he declared war against Louis XII. 
of France, invaded his dominions, and gained over him the battle 
of the &pz(rs, (so called from the flight of the French cavalry,) 
but failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking Taurney, 
leturned to England. About the same time, the Scots, who had 
inade an incursion into the northern part of his dominions, were 
defeated by the Earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, where James 
IV. of Scotland, with the greater part of his nobility, was slain. 
He was also somewhat involved in that long and bloody contest 
between Charles V. of Germany, and Francis I. of France. 

7. About this period, Henry wrote a book against Luther, the 
celebrated Reformer, on which account he was styled by the pope, 
" Defender of the Faith ;" a title which is still retained by his 
successors to the present day. The most memorable transactions 
of Henry's reign were his matrimonial alliances, and the conse- 
quence that followed from them. His first wife was Catherine, 
of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand of Spain, who had formerly 
been contracted to his brother Arthur, who died before the mar- 
riage was consummated. 

8. Among her maids of honor, the queen had Ann, the fair 
and beautiful daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn. This accom- 
plished lady, then in the bloom of youth, so captivated the king's 
affections, that Ire resolved to make her his wife. But his prior 
marriage with Catherine presented an obstacle that no other but 
valid sentence of divorce, could remove. He had been contracted 

What is the greatest stain upon his chpiacter ? — 5. Who succeeded ? What did he 
possess ? What will we sec in the sequel ? — G. By his prodigality, what did he. do . 
Against whom did he declare war? Where was James of Scotland defeated and 
Slain? — 7. About thh period, what did Henry do? What were the most memorable 
transactions of his reign? Who was his first wife?—?. Whr was among *>er maids 
o£ honor ? Whai is said of this accomplished ady 1 Of his pi ior marriage ? 



200 ENGLAND. 

to Catherine at an early period, through the inflnence of his fa. 
ther, and married shortly after he ascended the throne. But now, 
after living with her for eighteen years, he began to feel conscien- 
tious scruples respecting his marriage, on account of her having 
been the wife of his brother, and applied to Clement VII. for a di- 
vorce. The pope, unwilling to grant his request, from time to time 
held him in suspense, hoping that delay might change the mind of 
the English monarch. In his prime minister, the celebrated Car- 
dinal Wolsey, Henry expected to find an obsequious agent. But 
perceiving that the cardinal did not meet his expectations, he re- 
solved on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high treason. 

9. This extraordinary man was born at Ipswich, in Sufiolk, of 
humble parentage, but gifted with superior talents and great 
abilities, he rose" to the highest preferments in church and state; 
having been elevated to the arch-episcopal see of York, then crea- 
ted Cardinal, and soon afterwards Lord High Chancellor of En- 
gland and Prime Minister. The fame of his talents, riches, and 
power was known throughout all Europe. On his way from York to 
London, to stand his trial, he stopped at Leicester Abbey, where 
he died after a short illness. A few moments before his death, he 
uttered these remarkable words, in reference to the ingratitude of 
his sovereign : " If I had served my God as faithfully as I have 
served my king, he would not have abandoned me in my gray hairs." 
From the fate of this great man, we may demonstrate the instability 
of human greatness, and the weakness of human power. 

10. In the meantime, the king pushed forward the divorce with 
all his energy. The see of Canterbury having become vacant, he 
pitched upon the famous Cramner to fill it ; in this man, Henry 
found a ready instrument, not only to accomplish his present wish, 
but also to serve him in similar circumstances on a future occasion. 
Growing impatient of delay, and failing to obtain the pope's con- 
sent for the divorce, he resolved to carry the measure without his 
consent. For this purpose he assembled a court, over which Cran- 
mer presided ; this tribunal, after a short deliberation, pronounced 
his marriage with Catherine invalid, and immediately proceeded 
to grant the divorce. The king whose amorous affections would 
not permit him to delay, had been previously married to Ann Bo- 
leyn, even before he had received the decision of the court ap- 
pointed to annul his marriage with Catherine. 

11. Henry now threw off all restraint; abolished the papai 
jurisdiction in England, and caused himself, by act of parliament 
to be proclaimed head of the English church. He arrogated to 
himself infallibility, and condemned all, both Catholics and Pro- 
testants, to the stake, who held opinions contrary to his own. The 
venerable Bishop Fisher, and the celebrated Thomas More, then 

After eighteen years, what did he begin to feel ? What is said of the pope ? Who 
was his prime minister ?— 9. What is said of this extraordinary man? Of the fameo! 
bis talents? Before his death, what remarkable words did he utter?- -10. Who was 
chosen to fill the see of Canterbury? Growing impatient, what did he resolve. ? For 
this purpose, what was done? What had the king done before receiving the decision 
of the cour' ?— 11. What did the king now do ? What is said of Bishops Fisher wu 
More' 



ENGLAND. 201 

high chancellor, were Drought to the scaffold for refusing to ac- 
knowledge his supremacy. By an act of parliament, the monas- 
teries in England, to the number of six hundred, were suppressed, 
besides a much greater number of other religious institutions 5 
their estates were converted to the use of the crown, and their 
revenues swept into the royal exchequer. Speaking of these in- 
stitutions, Mr. Collier says": " To the abbeys we are indebted for 
most of our- best historians, both church and state; the youth 
there had their education with little charge to their parents ; the 
nobility and gentry a credible way of providing for their younger 
children." 

12. But Henry did not stop here; he even extended his rapa- 
cious hand from the dwellings of the living to the silent repose 
of the tomb. He plundered the rich shrine of St. Thomas of 
Canterbury, despoiled it of its ornaments of gold and silver, con- 
verting the whole to the royal treasury; then ordering the saint 
to be indicted for high treason committed against his sovereign, 
Henry II., he condemned him as a traitor; his bones were dug 
up and scattered to the wind. 

13. In less than three years after his late marriage, he caused 
the new queen, Jinn, to be condemned and beheaded for real or 
imputed crimes, and on the day after her execution, he married 
Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of Prince Ed- 
ward. His fourth wife was Ann, of Cleves, from whom he ob- 
tained a divorce because he had been deceived in the estimate he 
had formed of her personal appearance. Thomas Cromwell, who 
was the son of a blacksmith in Putney, now created Earl of Es- 
sex, and prime minister, having been instrumental in bringing 
about the unhappy marriage, lost the favor of the king, and sut 
fered on the scaffold. His fifth wife was Catherine Howard, who, 
also, ended her days on the scaffold, in a few months after her exalt- 
ation to the throne. His last wife was Catherine Par, the widow 
of Lord Latimer, whose life was saved by the death of the king, 
which took place in the thirty-seventh year of his reign, and fifty 
sixth of his age, A. D. 1547. 

14. Henry was succeeded by his son Edward VI., in the tenth 
year of his age, the Duke of Somerset, his uncle, being appointed 
protector of the kingdom during his minority. The reign of this 
prince is distinguished by the important change in the religion of 
the realm. During the reign of his father ihe principles of the 
reformation which had been introduced int. the kingdom were 
now patronised and tolerated. By degrees the forms of the an- 
cient church were removed in order to make place for those of 
the new. A new liturgy in the English language, and a book of 
Common Prayer, were composed by archbishop Cranmer. By 
the adoption of this liturgy, which was done by act of parliament, 
all the rights and ceremonies of the Catholic church were abo- 

What was done hy act of parliament? What does Mr. Collier say of these .nstitu- 
Lons? — 12. What did he plunder ? What did he order ? — 13. In less than three years, 
fcrr.at happened? Who was his fourth wife? "What is sa : d of Thoi/ias Cromwell? 
V",o was his fifth wife ? Who was hiz sixth wife ? When did Henry die ?-14. Whc 
succeeded? For what is the reign of this prince distinguished ? "What whs composed 
by Cianmer? By the adoption of this liturgy what was effected? 



202 ENGLAND. 

lished, and a form of worship nearly resembling that of the present 
church of England, established throughout the kingdom. 

15. The young king, who possessed many amiable qualities 
was suddenly carried off by death, in the sixteenth year of his age. 
Previously, however, he had been prevailed on, by the influence 
and intrigues of the Duke of Northumberland, the protector, to 
set aside his two sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and to leave the 
crown to Lady Jane Grey, who had married Lord Guilford Dud- 
ley, the son of the protector. Through the influence of her 
friends, Lady Jane Grey was immediately proclaimed on the death 
of Edward ; but after wearing the crown for ten days, she resigned 
the ensigns of royalty and retired again into a private station. 
After this unsuccessful attempt of Northumberland to snatch the 
crown from the brow of the rightful heir, Mary, the sister of Ed 
ward, quietly succeeded to the throne. 

16. The duke of Northumberland and two others were the only 
persons who suffered on the scaffold to atone for this conspiracy 
against their lawful sovereign. Lady Jane, who was considered 
as a mere instrument in the hands of the duke to work out his 
ambitious designs, was pardoned by the queen. But shortly after 
this a second conspiracy was entered into against Mary, at (he 
nead of which appeared the Duke of Suffolk and his brother; they 
were defeated, and atoned for their rebellion by the sacrifice o| 
their lives. 

17. Mary, who had been much blamed for her lenient conduct 
at the termination of the former conspiracy, was now induced, by 
the urgent persuasion of her ministers, to sign a warrant for the 
execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband. On the fatal 
morning permission was given them to take leave of each other; 
the indulgence Jane refused, saying that they would shortly meet 
in heaven. From the window of her cell she saw her husband led 
to execution, and his bleeding corpse brought back to the chapel. 
When led forth herself, she mounted the scaffold with a firm step. 
She acknowledged in a few words to the spectators her fault in 
consenting to the treason of Northumberland, although she was 
not one of the original conspirators; and after repeating a psalm, 
she laid her head upon the block ; at the first stroke of the axe it 
was severed from the body. 

18. Mary has been much censured in consenting to the execu • 
tion of this unfortunate lady. It is true that her life had been 
spared as a pledge tor the loyalty of the house of Suffolk ; that 
pledge had been forfeited by the late rebellion of the duke ; but 
still " it would have been to the honor of Mary," as Dr. Lingard 
observes, " to have over'ooked the provocation, and refused to 
visit on the daughter the guilt of the father." Mary, in the 
second year of her reign, married Philip IT , of Spain, a measure 
unpopular at the time, and productive of much unhappiness to 

15. What is said of the young king? T.> whom did he leave the crown? "What is 
said oi Lady Jane Grey? — 16. Who suffered on the scaffold? What was again entered 
into ugainsv Mary ? — 17. What was Mary now induced to do? On the fatal morning 
what is said of her ? When brought forth, what did she do? — 18. For what his Mary 
been censured? What 'Joes Dr. Lingard observe? Whom did she marry? 



ENGLAND. 2U3 

herself ', and towards the close of her reign the French took 
Calais, which had remained in possession of the K lglish for up- 
wards of two hundred and ten years. This event hastened her 
death ; she never seemed to recover from the stroke, and was 
often heard to say that the ^vord Calais was written on her heart. 
"She died in the forty-sixth year of her age, after a reign of six 
years, A. D. 1558. 

19. The foulest blot upon the memory of this queen is her per- 
secution of the Reformers* during her reign. It might be re- 
marked, not, however, in vindication of her acts, but as an 
apology for her conduct, that she lived at a time when the prin- 
ciples of religious toleration were not understood or practised by 
either Catholics or Protestants ; when the extirpation of erro- 
neous doctrines was inculcated as a duty by the leaders of every 
religious party. It was the misfortune rather than the fault of 
Mary, that she was not more enlightened than the wisest of her 
cotemporaries. With the exception of this, she is regarded even 
by many of those writers who differed from her in religion as a 
queen possessed of many amiable qualities ; they have borne 
honorable testimony to her virtues; have allotted to her the 
praise of piety and clemency, of compassion for the poor and 
liberality to the distressed. "The queen's private life," says 
Mr. Collier, " was all along strict and unblemished. The other 
world was always uppermost with her : she valued her con- 
science above her crown. She was not of a vindictive or impla- 
cable spirit." 

t 20. As Mary had always remained firm in the belief and prac- 
tice of the Catholic faith, one of her first measures was to restore 
the ancient religion of the kingdom, the public exercise of which 
had been nearly extinguished during the reign of her brother. 

21. Upon the death of Mary, her sister Elizabeth ascended the 
throne. Elizabeth, during the reign of her sister, had been a 
Catholic, but shortly after her accession, she openly avowed herself 
the protectress of the reformers, established the Protestant faith as 
the religion of the realm, assumed the title of supreme head of the 
English church, and revived all the penal statutes against non- 
conformists, to which were added many others of the most op- 
pressive nature.! It was made high treason to deny the queen's 
supremacy, or acknowledge the jurisdiction of the see of Rome 
within her dominions, or to absolve, persuade, or withdraw, any 
one from the established to the Catholic church. 

22. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, the grand-daughter of Henry 
VII., was the next heir to the English throne. This fact did 
not fail to excite the fears and jealousy of Elizabeth, who never 

* The principal sufferers were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley and Hooper, 
t EKz. Act 23—27. 

What place did the French take ? "When did she die? — It What is the foulest blot 
upon her memory? What might be remarked? With this exception, how is she re- 
garded ? What does Mr. Collier say of her ? — 20. What was one of her first measures ! 
--21. On the death of Mary who ascended the throne? What is said of Klizabetn ? 
Wha*. 'lid she assume and revive ? "What was made high treason ? — 22. Who waa the 
fjo.jrc heir to the throne 7 



204 ENGLAND. 

ceased in her resei.tment until she brought her unhappy cousin 
to a premature and tragical end. The young queen of Scotland 
had been renowned throughout Europe for her beauty and ac- 
complishments; she had been educated at the French court, and 
married Francis II., who died shortly after that event, and Mary 
returned to her own dominions. After a strange succession of 
events, which come more properly under the head of Scotland, 
the Scottish queen was compelled to quit her dominions and take 
refuge in England, where she was detained in captivity for 
nearly twenty years, and finally put to death by order of hei 
cousin Elizabeth. 

23. In 1588, Philip of Spain projected the invasion of England, 
to avenge the queen's interference with his subjects of the Nether- 
lands, who had revolted against his authority. For this purpose 
he fitted out the Invincible Armada, which consisted of one hun- 
dred and fifty ships, carrying three thousand pieces of cannon 
and twenty-seven thousand men. It entered the English chan- 
nel in the form of a crescent, and extended to the distance of 
seven miles. It was met by the English lleet, under the com- 
mand of Lord Admiral Howard, aided by Drake, Hawkins, 
Frobisher, and Raleigh. Being gradually weakened and dis- 
persed by a violent storm, the Invincible Armada was completely 
overthrown; only one-third of the vessels, with six thousanl 
men, returned to Spain. 

24. In the administration of the government, Elizabeth waa 
assisted by many eminent statesmen; among whom were Bacon, 
Burleigh, and Walsingham ; but her chief favorites were men 
of abandoned characters. Of these, in the early part of her reign, 
was the Earl of Leicester ; and after his death, the Earl of Essex 
seemed to hold the first place in the queen's affections. Eliza- 
beth and Essex had various quarrels and reconciliations; at last, 
unable to restrain the impetuosity of his temper, he broke out in 
open rebellion against her, for which he atoned by his death on 
the scaffold. 

25. After the death of Essex the. health of the queen visibly 
declined. At length she fell into a profound melancholy, which 
nothing could alleviate, and terminated her life in sorrow and 
gloom. All the splendor of royally faded from her view ; the 
time was come, to use her own expression, when " men would 
turn from the setting, to worship the rising sun.." She expired in 
the seventieth year of her age, and in the forty-fifth of her reign. 

26. Elizabeth possessed eminent abilities as a sovereign, and 
was distinguished for her talents in directing public affairs. In 
principles she was despotic, jealous, cruel, and revengeful ; over- 
bearing to her ministers in council; imperious to her servants 
in the palace; and her conversation was often grossly profane. 

What is said of the young queen? After a s ircession of evenls, what took place? 
— y3. In 15S8 what was done? For this purpose what did lie fit out? AVho com- 
manded the English fleet? What was the fate of the Armada? — 2-1. Who were soroc 
yf her eminent statesmen? Who were her favourites.' — '25. At length into what did 
6he fall? What expression did she make use of? When did she expire? — 'JG. What 
did Elizabeth possess? What was she in principle? Of what did she possess fevft 
By what was her reign distinguished ? What was introduced by Raleigh ' 



ENGLAND. 205 



In her private character she was even less to be admired. She 
possessed few of those milder and softer qualities that adorn the 
Female character. Her reign was distinguished for men of genius 
and learning; among whom Bacon, Shakspeare, and Spencer, 
were the most distinguished. The custom of smoking tobacco 
was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and potatoes were also 
brought to England from America at this period. 



SECTION VIII. 

Stuart Family; James I.; Charles I.; the Commonwealth; Crom- 
well; Charles 11.; James 11.; William and Mary; Anne; from 
A. D. 1603 to 1714. 

1. Elizabeth shortly before her death nominated as her succes- 
sor, James VI. of Scotland, who was the rightful heir by descent. 
On ascending the English throne he took the title of James I., 
and thus were the crowns of the two kingdoms united. Shortly 
after his arrival in England, a conspiracy was formed against him 
in favor of his cousin Arabella Stuart. It was prematurely dis- 
covered, and Sir Walter Raleigh, under a charge of being con- 
cerned in the plot, was sentenced to death, which was carried 
into execution after he had languished in prison with little inter- 
mission for fifteen years. 

2 Another conspiracy followed, of a more serious nature. This 
was the famous Gunpowder Plot, which was a design of a few 
daring adventurers to blow up the parliament house, and involve 
in one common ruin the king, lords, and commons. It was fortu- 
nately discovered on the eve of its accomplishment, and one of 
the leaders, named Guy Fawkes, was taken with matches in his 
pocket for firing the magazine. 

3. It was the misfortune of James to be attached to unworthy 
favorites, such as the Earl of Somerset and the Duke of Buck- 
ingham, men whose only merits were their personal appearance 
and superficial accomplishments. During the reign of Mary the 
Puritans made their first appearance in England, and during the 
last reign their number had greatly increased. At the accession 
of James, who had been educated a Presbyterian, they flattered 
themselves that their views would meet the royal approbation. 
Being disappointed in their expectations, some of their number 
sought an asylum from restraint in matters of religion in the 
wilds of America, and formed a settlement on the shores of New 
England. 

4. In 1625 the king was seized with an illness which termi- 
nated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and the twenty- 
second of his reign over England. James possessed many virtues, 

1. Who succcedeo. Elizabeth? After his nrrival in England, what was formed 
against him? What is said of Raleigh? — 2. AVhat other conspiracy followed? Who 
was one of the leaders? — 3. What was the misfortune of James? During the reign of 
Mary, who made their appearance in England? At the accession of James wha: did 
thiv expect? Where did many of them go ? — 1. When did the king die? 

18 



206 . ENGLAJSD 

but few free from the contagion of the neighboring vices. Hi3 
generosity bordered on profusion; his learning on pedantry; his 
friendship on a puerile fondness. His leading passion seems to 
have been a love of arbitrary power. The divine right of kings 
to govern without control, was with him a favorite theme. Be- 
ing naturally averse to war, his reign was peaceful. He was fond 
of ilattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand 
by his bishops and courtiers, who regarded him as the British 
Solomon, yet by others he seems to have merited the appellation 
given him by the Duke of Sully, that of the " wisest of the fools 
of Europe." 

5. Charles I. succeeded his father to the throne under many 
apparent advantages. He had not assumed the reins of govern- 
ment long, before he proved that he had imbibed the arbitrary 
principles of his father; he patronised the same unworthy favor- 
ite, Buckingham, who still retained all his former influence and 
authority. He married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV 
of France, a princess distinguished for her devotedness to her 
husband throughout all the eventful scenes of his life. 

6. The refusal of the parliament to grant adequate supplies to 
enable him to carry on a war against France and Spain, led 
Charles to adopt a resolution of ruling without their aid, and of 
levying money without their authority. This manifestation of a 
tyrannical disposition on the part of the king, first roused the 
parliament against him. Charles could not brook the denial of 
supplies, dissolved the parliament, and issued a warrant for bor- 
rowing money of his subjects. 

7. After an unsuccessful expedition against France, Bucking- 
ham, who had long since rendered himself detestable to the 
parliament, was assassinated by one Felton. The death of his 
favorite, however, did not deter Charles from his arbitrary pro 
ceedings. A new parliament was formed, as uncompromising as 
the former, and exhibited a spirit of determined opposition. A 
petition of rights was passed by both houses, which declared the 
illegality of raising money without their sanction, or of enforcing 
loans from the subjects, and annulled all taxes imposed without 
the consent of parliament. 

8. At this period, the current of public feeling seemed to run 
strongly in favor of Puritanism, which had been on the ascend- 
ency since the accession of James to the English throne. Charles 
now proceeded to a very injudicious and unpopular measure, 
which was to enforce, throughout his kingdom, a strict confor- 
mity to the liturgy of the church of England ; and through the 
indiscreet zeal of Archbishop LauiU the measure was rigidly en- 
forced. Not satisfied with attempting to enforce the liturgy in 
England, the king endeavored to impose the new liturgy upon 
the national Church of Scotland. Here the measure met with the 

What is his character? What was he styled by the Duke of Sully?— 5. Who suc- 
ceeded? Whom did he patronise? Whom did he marry? — 0. What led him to adopt 
the resolution of rulimr without the aid of parliament? What did he dissolve? — 7 
VVhat was the end of Buckingham ? What was ,1 new parliament formed for ? Wha 
was passed? — 8. At this period, how did the current ct public opinion seerr. to run! 
To what measure did Charles now proceed? How n*s he met in Scotland .' 



ENGLAND. 207 

most determined opposition, and excited the strongest sensation? 
among all ranks of people; an association was entered into, called 
the National Covenant, by which the parties bound themselves 
by oath to resist all religious innovations. 

9. After eleven years of intermission, the king found himself 
obliged again to convoke the parliament; but that body, instead 
of listening to his demand for supplies, began with presenting 
(lie public grievances, complaining of the infringement of the 
privileges of parliament, illegal taxation, and the violence done 
to the cause of religion. Charles, finding that nothing could be 
obtained from this assembly, so determined to oppose all his mea- 
sures, dissolved the parliament, but shortly afterwards convoked 
another. 

10. One of the first acts of the new parliament was the impeach- 
ment of the Earl of Strafford, the minister of state, and Arch- 
bishop Laud, on a charge of endeavoring to subvert the constitu- 
tion, and to introduce arbitrary power. Strafford was arraigned 
for trial before the house of peers; his defence on this occasion is 
said to have been one of the most pathetic pieces of eloquence 
ever delivered ; but nothing could save him from the vengeance 
of his enemies; he was found guilty, sentenced, and beheaded. 
This was a severe stroke to the king, who lost in the Earl a faith- 
ful minister and the firmest supporter of the prerogative of the 
crown. 

11. The contention between the king and the parliament from 
this period began to wear a more alarming aspect, until at last 
both parties resolved to decide the issue, of the contest by an 
appeal to the sword. Thus the standard of civil war was unfurled 
during the year 1642. 

The first serious overthrow of the royal forces happened at 
Marston Moor, where Charles and Prince Rupert were defeated 
by Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the parliament forces. 
After this victory Archbishop Laud, who had remained a prisoner 
in the Tower since the impeachment of Strafford, was brought to 
trial, condemned, and executed: and on the sawie day the liturgy 
of the Church of England was abolished, and the rigid principles 
of Puritanism established in its place. 

12. After the war had raged about five years, the royalists were 
entirely defeated in the battle of Naseby, and Charles very im- 
prudently surrendered himself to the Scottish army, by which he 
was basely delivered into the hands of the parliament for the sum 
of 26400,000. In the house of commons a vote was passed de- 
claring it treason in a king to levy war against his parliament, 
and instituted a high court of justice, composed of one hundred 
and thirty-three members, to try Charles for that offence. This 
measure was rejected by the house of lords, but the commons, 

9. After eleven years, what did the king no? What is said of th:s body? What 
course did the king- pursue? — 10. "What was one of the first acts of the new parliament? 
What is said of Stratford's defence? — lLWhst did the contention between the kingand 
the parliament begin to wear? When did the war break out? Where was the first 
overthrow? After this victory, what is said of Archbishop Land? — 12. W. ere were 
the rovuhsts defeated, and what lid Charles do? What was dc.Jt; in the house of com 



208 ENGLAND. 

supported by the parliamentary army, disregarded their dissent 
and issued an order for the trial. The king having been arraigned 
before this self-created tribunal, refused to answer any questions 
put to him, disavowed its legality, and denied its jurisdiction; 
but all was of no avail ; his enemies thirsted for his blood, and 
nothing less than his death would satisfy their vengeance. The 
trial proceeded ; Charles was found guilty, and the sentence of 
death was pronounced against him as a tyrant, murderer, and 
traitor. 

13. He bore the sentence of death, and all the unworthy treat- 
ment he received on ins trial, with a degree of fortitude that ex- 
cited the admiration even of his enemies. Permission was given 
him to see his children. He took his last leave of them with ten- 
derness and affection, and spent the short respite that was allowed 
him in private devotions with Juxton, Bishop of London, in ordei 
to prepare himself for the trying scene through which he was 
about to pass. On reaching the scaffold, which was erected before 
Whitehall, he surveyed the preparations with a countenance un- 
dismayed, addressed a few words to those who were near him, 
declared his innocence, and freely forgave his enemies; he then 
laid his head upon the block, and at the first stroke of the axe it 
was severed from the body. Such was the unhappy end of Charles 
I., in the forty-ninth year of his age and twenty-fourth of his 
reign. 

14. If we take a survey o this period, we will find much to ad- 
mire, and much to condemn. That Charles had committed er- 
rors in the administration of the government, is obvious to all $ 
but that these errors were such as to sanction the proceedings 
against him, few are willing to admit. That many of those who 
first opposed his arbitrary measures were actuated by a sense of 
justice, and a desire of maintaining the liberties of the people, 
may be admitted; while the result will show that there were 
others who only aimed afhurling the monarch from his throne, that 
they themselves might exercise his arbitrary principles. The 
house of commons ordered a new Great Seal to be made, bearing 
the words, " On the first year of freedom, by God's blessing, re- 
stored, 1648." The king's statue in the exchange was thrown 
down, and on the pedestal was inscribed, Exit tyrannus, JRegitm 
ultimus- -the tyrant is gone, the last of the kings. 

15. After the death of the king, the commons proceeded to 
abolish the monarchy and the house of lords, and to establish a 
republican form of government. A proclamation was issued, 
stating that the supreme authority of the nation was vested in the 
representatives of the people, and it should be high treason to give 
to any person the title of king without the consent of parliament. 
Nothing, perhaps, in the history of this period is more remarkable 
than the sudden revolutions in religion. After the execution of 

What did they refuse ? What was the isstie of the trial ?— 13. How did he hear the 
sentence? How did he take leave of his children? On reaching the scaffold, what 
did he do? \V lien was he executed?— 14. What is said of Cliarles and of those engaged 
in his death ? What did the house of commons ordei ?— 15. After the king's death, 
what did the commons do ? What was issued ? What arc we now to behold ? 



ENGLAND. 209 

Laud, we have seen that the Episcopacy was abolished, and 
Presbyterianism established in its stead ; we are now to behold the 
Presbyterian interest decline in favor of the Independents, who 
Degan to gain the ascendency. Through the management of 
Cromwell, the power which had been vested in the king was trans- 
ferred to the army, and measures were taken to exclude the 
Presbyterians from parliament. In this manner the Presbyte- 
rians, who had been instrumental in subverting the church and 
throne, fell victims to the power of the army, through whose 
agency they had accomplished their designs. 

16. The people of Ireland and Scotland were still faithful in 
their allegiance to the fallen monarch, and unfurled the royal 
Btandard in favor of his son, Charles II. Cromwell haying pro- 
cured for himself the appointment of commander-in-chief of the 
forces directed against Ireland, landed at Dublin; thence he pro- 
ceeded to Drogheda, which was well fortified, and garrisoned 
with three thousand men, under the command of Sir Arthur Als- 
ton. The place was finally taken by a furious assault, and only 
one of all the garrison escaped the barbarous massacre that fol- 
lowed ; after this, the country submitted to his authority. 

17. He next marched into Scotland at the head of sixteen thou 
sand men, defeated the royalists at Dunbar, overthrew them 
again in the desperate battle of Worcester, and completely esta- 
blished the sovereignty of the parliament After this battle, young 
Charles, having with difficulty escaped from the scene of de- 
feat, assumed the disguise of a peasant, and travelled in the 
least frequented roads, pursuing his journey by night, and fre 
quently passing the day in obscure cottages. On one occasion he 
passed the day concealed in the branches of a large oak; while in 
this situation, he heard and saw his pursuers passing beneath him. 
After many adventures, he effected his escape to France. 

18. At this period the republic astonished all Europe by the 
brilliancy of its naval achievements. The famous navigation act 
which prohibited any state from carrying into England any com- 
modity which was not the growth or manufacture of the country 
to which the vessel belonged, produced a war with Holland, in 
which Admiral Blake obtained a great naval victory over the 
celebrated Dutch commanders, Van Tromp and De liuyter. 

19. The parliament, which had been in session for eleven yenrs, 
and known by the name of the Long Parliament, attempted to 
reduce the army, with a view of diminishing the power of Crom- 
well, who, perceiving their design, and being secure of the at 
tachment of the soldiery, resolved to wrest the sovereign power 
from their hands. An unfavorable reply being returned to a pe- 
tition which he sent to parliament, he rose in a violent rage, and 
taking with him a strong guard, he entered the house with marks 

What was effected through the influence of Cromwell?— 16. What is said of the 
people of Ireland and Scotland? Of Cromwell? After taking Drogheda, what fol- 
lowed? — 17. Where did he next march? After this battle, what is said of young 
Charles ? On one occasion, how did he pass the day ? — 18. At this period what i r said 
ntthe vepubTc? Wi.at did the navigation act produce ? — 19. What is said ot the par- 
liament ? 

18* 



210 ENGLAND. 



of indignation in his countenance, and afier loading the members 
with reproaches, he cried out, " For shame ; get you gone; give 
place to honest men. I tell you, you are no longer a parliament; 
the Lord has done with you." Having turned them out, he or- 
dered the doors to be locked, and taking the keys, he departed to 
his residence at Whitehall. 

20. He then called anew parliament in quite a novel form. He 
took the census of the congregational churches in the several 
counties, and reported the names of such persons as were deemed 
qualified to fill the high office; of these, one hundred and sixty-. 
three representatives were selected, and on the day appointed, 
presented themselves to the number of one hundred and twenty, 
in the council chamber at Whitehall. This body, composed of 
men imbued with all the fanaticism of the time, received the name 
of the Barebone Parliament, from one of its leading members, 
who bore the singular name of Praise- God Barebone. The Bare- 
bone Parliament, after a session of a few months, resigned all 
their authority into the hands of Cromwell, a measure which he 
had probably intended or expected. The parliament immediately 
dissolved, and the officers of the army, by their sole authority, de- 
clared Cromwell Protector of the commonwealth of England. 

21. The Protector entered on the duties of his new office with 
energy and ability. He was assisted by a council of twenty-one 
members, declined the title of majesty, but received that of high- 
ness ; refused the title of king, although he possessed the power 
and assumed all the ensigns of royalty. His administration, how* 
ever, advanced the military glory of England. Abroad, his fleets 
and armies were victorious ; he obliged the Dutch to sue tor 
peace, and humbled the power of Spain. 

22. Having attained the height of his ambition, Cromwell 
found that his situation was by no means enviable. The nation 
despised the man, who, under the pretence of espousing the lib- 
erties of the people, had aspired to unlimited power. He was 
aware of this hatred, and the dread of assassination caused him 
to wear armor under his clothes. His health began to decline, 
and he was at length seized with a fever, which terminated his 
life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, A. D. 1658. 

23. His son, Richard Cromwell, who inherited neither the 
abilities nor the ambition of his father, was proclaimed Protectoi 
in his place ; but after holding the office for a few months, he re- 
signed the title, and retired to private life. A military despotism for 
some time succeeded, the army directing the affairs or govern- 
ment at will. At length General Monk, who then commanded 
an army in Scotland, marched into England, crushed the con- 
tending factions, and caused a new parliament to be assembled. 
After the meeting of the members, some time intervened before 
the king was mentioned. At length they were informed that a 

An unfavorable reply being returned to a petition, what did Cromwell do? Whal 
did he cry out? — 20. How dm he call a new parliament ? What name did this body 
receive? What did the officers of the army do? — 21. What is said of the Projector 1 
What title did he receive ? What is snid of his administration? — 22. What did Crom- 
well find ? What did the nation do? When did he die? — 23. Who was proclaimed 
Protector in his place? What did he do ? What succeeded ? What is said'of Genera. 
Monk ' 






ENGLAND. 211 

messenger was at the door with a letter from the king to the com- 
mons. The letter was received and read, the parliament assented 
to the proposals, and in this manner Charles II was restored to 
his kingdom, and to the throne of his father, A. D. 16(50. 

24. 'Ihe whole demeanor of Charles at the commencement of 
his reign, was such as to inspire the affection of his subjects, and 
Co render him generally popular. He was in the thirtieth year 
of his age, possessing a handsome exterior, familiar and affable in 
his manners; but at the same time much inclined to indolence 
and pleasure. An act of general indemnity was passed, except 
to those immediately concerned in the late king's death. Accord- 
ingly, Harrison, Scott, Jones, and several others engaged in the 
trial of his father, were executed. But the vengeance of the king 
passed from the living to the dead ; the bodies of Cromwell, 
(kadshaw, and Ireton, were dug up from their graves, and after 
hanging for some time, were cut down and buried under the gal- 
lows. 

25. Charles was soon distinguished for the same arbitrary prin • 
ciples which seemed hereditary in the family of the Stuarts. The 
doctrine of passive obedience and non-resistance now came into 
use. ; from which originated the distinguishing epithets of Whigs 
and Tories ; the former opposed to the pretensions of the crown, 
the latter its advocates. A new parliament was assembled, con- 
sisting chiefly of high churchmen and loyalists ; the episcopacy 
was restored, and an act of conformity in religion was passed. 

26. The next year Charles married Catherine of Portugal, and 
with her obtained a dowry of five hundred thousand pounds, a 
sum which greatly relieved his present necessities. But his pro- 
digality kept him always in want; he next bartered away Dun- 
kirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, to the French for 
four hundred thousand pounds sterling, which was soon squan- 
dered on his pleasures. He soon after this declared war against 
the Dutch, which continued to rage for several years, until at 
length a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the Dutch ceded 
the colony of New York to the English. 

27. During this war London was visited with a plague, 
which carried off* ninety thousand of its inhabitants; and in the 
following year a fire took place by which thirteen thousand 
houses were laid in ruins. To perpetuate the calamity, a monu- 
ment was erected, bearing an inscription, falsely charging the 
Roman Catholics as the authors of the conflagration ; the inscrip- 
tion has lately been erased by the order of parliament. 

28. Towards the close of the reign of Charles, the Whigs 
having the ascendency in parliament, distinguished themselves 
by their hostility to the Catholics, and insisted on the king's as- 
sent to a bill for the exclusion of his brother, the Duke of Fork, 

Of what was parliament informed? How was the letter received? — 24. What was 
the demeanor of Charles ? What act was passed ? Who were executed ? What was 
done with the bodies of Cromwell. &c. ?— 25. For what was Charles scon distinguished ? 
What doctrine now came into use, and what epithets originated from it? What is said 
of the new parliament?— 20. "Whom did Charles marry? What did he barter awav ? 
What war was declared ? How did it terminate ?— 27. By what was London visited 1 
In ihe following year what U.nk place? To perpetuate the calamity, what was erect- 
ed?— 28. How did the Whigs distinguish themselves? 



212 



ENGLAND. 



who had lately embraced the Catholic faith. To this highly unjust 
and unnatural measure, the king could not consent, and in con- 
sequence dissolved two successive parliaments. A pretended plot 
was discovered by the infamous Titus Oates, (a man guilty of 
almost every crime in the catalogue of human vices,) which oc- 
casioned the unjust execution of Lord Stafford, and several other 
eminent Catholics. Another conspiracy was shortly after de- 
tected, in favor of reform, called the Rye-house plot ; in which 
Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney, were accused of being con* 
cerned. They were brought to trial, found guilty, and be- 
headed. 

29. The king himself did not lon<> survive these acts of seventy, 
being seized with an apoplexy, he died in the fifty-fifth year of his 
age, and twenty-fifth of his reign. Shortly before his death, lie 
sent for a Catholic clergyman, and received the sacraments from 
his hands. During the reign of Charles, the famous act of Ha- 
beas Corpus was passed, by which persons were freed from arbi- 
trary imprisonment. The most distinguished poets of this period, 
were Butler, Cotton, Dryden, Otway, and Roscommon. A re- 
markable instance of longevity is mentioned of Thomas Parr, a 
laboring man in Yorkshire, w r ho had lived in ten reigns, and 
completed one hundred and sixty years. 

30. As Charles had left no legitimate issue, his brother, the 
Duke of York, succeeded to the throne, under the title of James 
II., with every mark of public approbation, notwithstanding his 
open profession of the Catholic faith. It is probable that James 
might have reigned in tranquillity, and have ended his days on 
the throne of his ancestors, had it not been for his own impru- 
dence, and the unfortunate choice he made of his ministers. The 
early part of his reign was disturbed by the rebellion of the Duki 
of Monmouth, who aimed at seizing the crown. Encouraged by 
the Prince of Orange and Sunderland, the perfidious minister o( 
James, the duke landed in England, caused himself to be pro- 
claimed king, and unfurled his standard at Taunton. Aftei 
wearing the empty title of royalty for a few weeks, he was de- 
feated, taken prisoner, and atoned for his rebellion on the scaffold 

31. A special commission was issued to Jcffrys, the Lord Chief 
Justice, for the trial of the rebel prisoners. Jcffrys, in the exe 
cution of his commission, is represented as guilty of wanton 
cruelty; for although there was no doubt of the guilt of the 
accused, yet the number of those who suffered made the acts of 
public justice assume the appearance of cruelty and revenge, 
while all the odium of these severities fell upon the king. 

32. James now finding himself firmly seated upon the throne, 
proceeded to a measure that did not fail to excite the disaffection 
of a great number of his subjects. As he had openly professed 
the Catholic faith, it was his ardent wish to restore the ancient 

What pretended plot was discovered ? What other conspiracy was detected ? Who 
were accused of being concerned in it? — 29. How did the king die? What act was 
passed in his reign? "Who were distinguished poets? What is said of Parr?— 30 
Who succeeded to th.5 throne? By what was the early part of his reign disturbed? 
What was the fata of Monmouth ? — 31. To whom was a commission issued? How is 
J<jffrys represented ? — 32. What is said of James ? What was his wish* 



ENGLAND. " 213 

religion of the kingdom. By way of preparation for this important 
step, the king, on the 4th of April, 1687, from his royal preroga- 
tive, issued a proclamation, granting to all his subjects entire 
liberty to worship God according to the dictates of their own 
conscience. This indulgent grant, so honorable to the sovereign, 
so desirable on the part of a free people, and so suitable to the 
mild spirit of Christianity, was joyfully received by the Catholics 
and dissenters of all denominations; by others, it was loudly 
censured, as tending to overthrow the national church established 
by law, which they still conceived necessary for its support. 

33. Another proclamation granting full liberty of conscience, 
followed duringlihe April of 1688, which was ordered to be read 
in every church and chapel in the kingdom, after the service had 
ended. This order occasioned considerable opposition, and six 
of the bishops, who resisted the mandate, were immediately com- 
mitted to the Tower, and indicted for disobedience. 

34. The contest with the bishops completed the king's unpopu- 
larity; his enemies, without being suspected, had prepared the 
kingdom for a general revolt ; they secretly applied for aid to the 
Prince of Orange, the son-in-law of James, and offered him the 
crown as the reward of his services. On receiving this invitation, 
William, with the utmost expedition, fitted out a fleet of five 
hundred sail, carrying four thousand men, and landed in England. 
In a few days, he was joined by the greater part of the English 
army; and James found himself deserted, even by those who 
owed all to his bounty. Among others who left him in the hour 
of distress, was his favorite daughter Anne, who secretly with- 
drew to join the standard of the man who had invaded the 
dominions of her father, and was about to snatch the crown from 
his brow. 

35. At the news of the ungrateful conduct of the daughter 
whom he tenderly loved, his constancy gave way, and in bittei 
anguish he exclaimed, "God help me ! My own children have 
forsaken me in my utmost need." Having previously sent his 
queen and infant son, the Prince of Wales, to the French court, 
he shortly after followed, leaving his kingdom in the power of his 
rival. 

36. After the king's departure, a convention met, consisting 
of members of the house of commons during the reign of Charles 
II., as those of James were deemed illegal. They declared that 
James, by quitting the kingdom, had deserted the people, (although 
it was evident that the people had deserted him,) and that the 
throne was vacant They passed a bill excluding the Roman 
Catholics from office, and settled the crown on the Prince of 
Orange and the princess, and their heirs ; but the administration 
of the government^ was placed in the hands of the prince alone. 

37. After some time spent in France, James resolved to make 

In 1GS7, what did lie issue? How was this prant received ?— 33. In 16S8 whnt fol. 
lowed ? What did the order occasion? — 34. "What did his enemies do'' To whom did 
they apply ? On receiving the invitation, what did William do ? In a few days, how 
did James find himself ? Who left him, among others? — 35. At the news of this de- 
fection, what did he exclaim? Where did he send his queen and son? — 36. After ihe 
king's departure, what was done? What did they declare? What did they pass? 



'214 



ENGLAND. 



an effort to regain his crown, through tlie loyalty of the people oi 
Ireland, who stih adhered to his interest. Having arrived at 
Kinsale, he made a public entry into Dublin, amidst the acclama- 
tions of the inhabitants. In the year 1090 was fought the famous 
battle of tne Boyne, between the forces of the king and those of 
his rival, William. The battle was maintained for some time 
with equal bravery on both sides; at length, owing to the pusil- 
lanimity of James, who, seeing his forces gaining some advantage 
over their opponents, cried out, " to spare his English subjects,' 5 
the scale of victory turned in favor of William. 

38. James fled from the scene of defeat, and escaped to France, 
where he remained a pensioner on the bounty of the French 
king ; the exiled monarch passed the remainder of his days at St. 
Germains, where he gained the esteem of all who knew him, for 
his exemplary piety, and for his mildness and affability. He died 
in the sixty-eighth year of his age, A. D. 1701. 

William was naturally of a ieeble constitution, which he en- 
deavored to repair by exercise. As he rode from Hampton Court 
to Kensington, his collar-bone was fractured by falling from his 
horse ; this was followed by a fever, which terminated his life, in 
the fifty-second year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. 
The reign of William was memorable for the establishment of 
the Bank of England. 

39. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon Anne, 
the second daughter of James II., who had married George, 
Prince of Denmark. On coming to the throne, she communi- 
cated to the houses of parliament her determination of declaring 
war against France. In conjunction with Germany and Holland, 
war was accordingly declared. The Duke of Marlborough, one 
of the greatest generals of his age, was appointed commander- 
in-chief of the allied army ; Prince Eugene commanded the im- 
perial forces. After the power of Louis XIV. had been consi- 
derably weakened by the several victories of Blenheim, Ramilles, 
Oudenarde and Malplaquet, gained by the allied armies, the war 
was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, in the year 1713. 

40. The most memorable event of this reign was the union be- 
tween England and Scotland, which destroyed the Scottish par- 
liament, and included the two countries under the common title 
of Great Britain. It was during the reign of Anne that Gibraltar 
was taken by the English, which has remained in their possession 
to the present time. At this period, party spirit was carried to 
extremes, and distracted the kingdom during the greater part ot 
her reign. The queen's health had been for some time on the de- 
cline; at length she passed from the turmoil and splendor of the 
palace to the humble quietude of the tomb, in the fiftieth year of 
her age, and the thirteenth of her reign, A. D. 1714. 

37. After some time, what did James resolve? What took place in 1690 ? What 
did James exclaim? What was the issue of the battle?— 33. What did James do 1 
Where did he pass 'he remainder of his days? When did he die? What occasioned 
the death of Wi.liam ? — 39. On whom did "the crown now devolve? What war wag 
immediately declared? Who was appointed commander-in-chief? What victories 
were gained? How was the war terminated ? — 40. What was the most memorable 
event of her reign? What was taken by the English? When did she d>"e ? 



ENGLAND. 215 

This period has been so prolific in men of genius, that it has 
been styled the Augustan Age of England. Some of the most 
distinguished names are those of Pope, Swift, Addison, Parnell, 
Rowe. and Gay. 



SECTION IX. 

House of Brunswick ; George I; George II.; George III.} 
George IV.; William IV.; from A. D. 1714 to 1830. 

1. On the death of Anne, George I., Elector of Hanover, suc- 
ceeded to the throne, with the general approbation. The features 
of his reign were generally pacific, and afford few events of im- 
portance in history. Upon assuming the reins of government, he 
attached himself to the whig party, which had strenuously advo- 
cated his accession, and entered into violent measures against the 
late tory ministry. 

2. A committee of investigation was appointed to inspect the 
papers relative to the treaty with France; Lord Bolingbroke, the 
Earl of Oxford, and the Earl of Mortimer, with several others of 
t\\Q tory party, were impeached for high treason. These vindic- 
tive proceedings excited the indignation of the people, and the 
flame of rebellion broke out in Scotland. The Earl of il/r/r, at 
the head often thousand men, proclaimed the son of James II. as 
the lawful monarch of Great Britain. The rebellion, however, 
was soon crushed, and the most exemplary severity exercised 
against the leaders. Various lords and earls were impeached, and 
suffered death on the scaffold ; many others of inferior rank were 
executed, and about a thousand transported to North America. 

3. At this period a plan was devised for lessening the national 
debt, by lowering the interest, called the South Sea Scheme; the 
measure, however, gave a severe stroke to public credit, and 
ruined the fortunes of thousands. 

George died suddenly of a paralytic disorder, while on a visit 
to his electoral dominions of Hanover, in the sixty-eighth year of 
his age, and the thirteenth of his reign, A. D. 1727. 

4. George II., who succeeded his father in the forty-fourth 
year of his age, was a prince possessed of considerable abilities, 
of a violent temper, and distinguished in military exercise. Like 
his father, he inclined to the whig party, and was particularly 
biassed in favor of his continental dominions, on account of 
which he involved England in an expensive war. The most 
prominent person in the administration during the reign of 
George, was Sir Robert Walpole, a man of eminent abilities, but 
accused by many as guilty of a system of corruption and venality, 
which he practiced while in office. 

What has this period been styled? What were some of the most distinguished 
names ? 

1. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of his reign? — 2. What committee 
was appointed? Who were impeached ? What did these proceedings excite? What 
is said of the rebellion ?— 3. At this lime what was devised? When did George die ? 
—4. Who succeeded? To what was he incined 7 Who was the most prominent 
ln;r6on m the administration ? 



216 ENGLAND. 

5. The military operations during- this reign were extensive, and 
the British arms were generally triumphant. England espoused 
the cause of Maria Theresa of Austria, against the emperor 
Charles and Louis XV. of France. In this contest, called the war 
of the Austrian Succession, the principal states of Europe were in- 
volved. Various was the success that attended the contending 
powers. The English, with their allies, under the command of 
George II. in person, defeated the French in the celebrated battle 
of Detlingen, and (he French, in their turn, under Marshal Saxe, 
gained the victory at Fontenoy. After war had raged for some 
time, peace was again restored by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
and the claim of Maria Theresa to the throne was confirmed. 

0. During the absence of the king on the continent, Charles 
Edward, the eldest son of James II., assisted by Louis XV. of 
France, made a last and dying effort to regain the throne of his 
ancestors. He landed in Scotland, and placing himself at the 
head of an army, he defeated the royalists in the battles of Pres- 
ton-Pans and Falkirk; but on the 16th of April, 1746, was fought 
the famous battle of Culloden, in which Charles was signally de- 
feated by the royal forces under the Duke of Cumberland. By 
this battle the hereditary pretensions to the crown of England 
were forever extinguished; the prince, after a series of adven- 
tures, escaped to France. 

7. Towards the close of this reign, the war was again renewed 
between England and France, on account of the encroachments 
of the latter on the British colonies in America. The war was 
finally terminated by the surrender of all Canada on the part of 
France. It was during this war that the brave and illustrious 
Wolf perished in the moment of achieving the capture of the city 
of Quebec. During their operations in America the British also 
carried on a war in India. 

8. George II. died in 1760, at his palace of Kensington, in the 
seventy-seventh year of his age and the thirty-third of his reign. 
His reign was distinguished Tor many eminent writers and men 
of genius ; among the poets, Young, Akenside, and Gray, stand 
pre-eminent. 

9. George III., the grandson of the late monarch, succeeded 
to the throne in the eighteenth year of his age. He commenced 
his reign at a favorable period, when the national arms were 
everywhere triumphant, and the administration of the govern- 
ment was directed by the genius of William Pitt, (Lord Chatham,) 
one of the most eminent and popular ministers in the annals of 
the nation. It was at this period that an oppressive and unjust 
course of policy was adopted by the British government towards 
her American colonies. Against these measures Pitt exerted all 
the power of his eloquence, but in vain ; the colonies were finally 

5. What is said of the military operation? of this reign? What did England espouse? 
What was this war called ? How was peace restored ? — G. During the abse*;2e of tho 
king what took place? Where did he land? What took place in 1746?— 7. Towards 
the close of his reign what took place? How was it terminated? Duiing this war 
?rhai happened? — S. 'When did George II. die ? Among the poels who stanc pre-em». 
nent? — 9. Who succeeded to the throne? How did he commence his reign ? WbHi 
took place at this period ? 



ENGLAND. 217 

driven into hostilities with the mother country, and Great Britain, 
after a long and expensive warfare, was compelled to acknow* 
ledge their independence. [See United States.'] 

10. The other most important events of this reign were the ex- 
tension of tae British possessions in India, where Hyder Ali and 
his son distinguished themselves by their opposition to the en- 
croachments of the English ; the Irish rebellion, which took place 
in 1798, and her subsequent union with Great Britain, (see Ire- 
land;) and her long and sanguinary conflicts, which grew out of 
the French Revolution. 

11. Some of the principal achievements of the British during 
this period were the famous naval victories of the Nile and 
Trafalgar, by Lord Nelson, and those of Talavera, Salamanca, 
Vittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. George died on the 29th 
of January, 1820, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, after a 
reign of sixty years, the longest we find in English history 
During the last ten years of his life he was afflicted with insanity, 
which disqualified him for all public business, and his son, the 
Prince of Wales, acted as regent. The subversion of his intellect 
is supposed to have been brought on by the death of his favorite 
JLmilia, aided by advanced age and toils of state. His natural 
endowments were not great, although a good monarch and much 
beloved by his subjects. 

12. George IV., who succeeded to the throne, was a prince 

ftossessed ot eminent abilities and talents. The early part of his 
ife was distinguished for unrestrained dissipation and prodigality. 
His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous. Some of the 
most important events were the war in India, by which the Eng- 
lish gained a great part of the Burman Empire ; the celebrated 
trial of his queen in the House of Lords for misconduct; the in- 
terposition in favor of the Greeks in their struggle for indepen- 
dence; during which was gained the celebrated naval victory at 
Navarino, over the Turks, by the united fleets of England, 
France, and Russia; and also the passage of the Catholic Relief 
Bill, by which the disabilities of the Roman Catholics in Great 
Britain and Ireland were removed, and by which they were 
placed on an equal footing with members of the established church, 
with three exceptions; exclusion from the throne, and from the 
office of Lord -lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Chancellor of that 
kingdom and of England. 

13. George IV. (fied at Windsor on the 26th of June, 1830, in 
the sixty-eighth year of his age and the eleventh of his reign, and 
was succeeded in the throne by his brother, William, Duke of 
Clarence, under the title of William IV. His short rei^n was 
riot distinguished for any important event ; at his death he was 
succeeded by her present majesty, Queen Victoria. 

\Yhat is said of Pitt?— 10. What were the other most important events of th. 5 reign' 
— li. What were some of the achievements of the British period ? When did George 
dift? What is said of the last ten years of his life? Of his abilities *— 13. Who suc- 
ceeded to the throne? What were some of the most important events of ) is reign? 
What are the three exceptions to the Catholic Relief Bill?— I'd. When did George die 
and by whom succeedfid ? At Ti is death who succeeded? 

19 



SCOTLAND. 

SECTION I. 

1. The early history of Scotland is greatly involved in fable 
and obscurity. Their pretension to a regular succession of kings 
from the time of Alexander the Great seems entitled to little 
credit. Fergus J. they consider as the founder of their monarchy, 
and he is said to have been the first who displayed on his banner 
the royal emblem of Scotland; namely, a red lion with his tail 
folded on his back, the attitude which that noble animal assumes 
when roused to anger. When the Romans took their final leave 
of England, in 410, the people of Scotland were divided into a 
number of hostile tribes, the principal of which were the Scots 
and Picts ; the latter was subdued by Kenneth II., who became 
king of all Scotland, A. D. 843. 

2. Little of importance or interest occurs in the history of the 
country from the time of Kenneth until the reign of Alexander 
HI. Upon the death of Alexander a number of competitors for 
the crown appeared, among whom Robert Bruce and John Baliol 
seemed to have the nearest claim. They were both descended from 
David, Earl of Huntington, third son of David I . To avoid, 
however, the miseries of civil war, they resolved to refer the case 
to Edward I. of England, as umpire, and submit to his decision. 
Edward finding Baliol the more obsequious, decided in his favor. 
Baliol consented to receive the crown as a vassal of England. 

_ 3. But the fierce and warlike barons could not brook the pas- 
sive spirit of John, and the encroachment of their liberty by the 
English monarch. A war ensued between the two kingdoms; 
Edward marched into Scotland at the head of a powerful army, 
and after defeating the Scots in a battle near Dunbar, reduced 
the whole country to subjection. The weak and timid spirit ot 
Baliol induced him to surrender the crown into the hands of the 
English king. 

4. At this critical juncture, when the liberties of Scotland lay 
prostrate at the feet of the conqueror, the dying energies of the 
nation were roused by the valor and patriotism of Sir William 
Wallace. The deeds of this hero are, in many instances, colored 
with fiction; yet, divested of all their embellishments, they 
remain sufficiently great to render him worthy of the name of 
patriot. He almost single-handed ventured to take up arms in 
defence of the kingdom, and by his boldness revived the spirit of 
his countrymen. He persuaded Robert Bruce to assert the right 
and vindicate the honor of his country. The Scots nocked to 
the standard of Bruce, who, after a variety of victories, succeeded 

1. What is said of the history of Scotland ? Whom do they consider as the founder 
o* their monarchy? What is said of him ? How were the people divided ? By whom 
were the latter subdued? — 2. On the death of Alexander what took place? To avoid 
civil war. what did they resolve? What did Edward do ?— 3. What .s said of the 
barons? What ensued? What did Edward do? — 4. At this critical juncture whai 
took place ? AVhat is said of his deeds? What did he«peisiiade Bruce? What is said 
of the Scots? 
218 



SCOTLAND. 219 

in restoring the independence of his country, and was elevated 
to the throne, A. 1). 1306. 

5. Edward again made preparations for invading Scotland, and 
had advanced as far as Carlisle, when he suddenly died. In the 
reign of his successor was fought, near Stirling, the famous battle 
of Bannockbum. Edward commanded the English forces in 
person, and Robert Bruce those of Scotland; the engagement 
terminated in the signal defeat of the English army, and firmly 
established the victorious Bruce on the throne of his ancestors. 
Bruce died in 1329, and was succeeded by his son, David II., at 
the age of four years. During his minority, the Earl of Murray 
was appointed regent of the kingdom, and fulfilled the duties of 
his station with justice and moderation. 

6. About the year 1331, Edward Baliol, the son of John Baliol, 
taking advantage of the king's minority, began to bring forward 
pretensions to the crown. Aided by many of the English barons, 
he landed in Scotland and defeated the Earl of Mar, who had 
succeeded Murray in the office of regent. Baliol was immediately 
crowned king, and acknowledged the English monarch as his 
superior. Thus was Scotland a second time reduced to a state 
of dependence and subjection to England. 

7. The spirit of freedom which had so long characterized the 
Scots slumbered for a season, but was not subdued. The faithful 
adherents of the deposed king watched the earliest opportunity 
to strike for the liberty of their country, and to shake oft' the 
English yoke. At length the Scottish valor prevailed: Baliol 
was expelled from the country, and David II. was again restored 
to the throne, A. D. 1341. 

8. David was a weak but virtuous prince, and passed through 
many reverses of fortune. He was taken prisoner by the English 
in the battle of Durham, and remained in captivity for eleven 
years ; he was at length ransomed by his subjects, and died in 
1370. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stuart, the first 
of that family who swayed the sceptre of Scotland. The race of 
the Stuarts is the most unfortunate in the annals of history; with 
few exceptions, they all became the victims of some ill-fated or 
tragical end. 



SECTION II. 

Tlie House of Stuarts ; from Pobert II. to James VI., Jl. D. 
1370/0 1603. 

1. "Robert II., a prince characterized for the mildness of his 
disposition, was quite unequal to the task of managing his fierce 
and ungovernable subjects. His reign was marked by a series 

5. In the reign of his successor, what battle was fought? flow did it terminate? 
WIumi did Bruce die? My whom succeeded? — 6. In the year 1331 what took place? 
What followed?— 7. What is said of the spirit of freedom? Of Bahol?— 8. Whnl IS 
said ot David? By whom >vas he succeeded? 

1. What is said of Robert? 



220 SCOTLAND. 

of contests which took place between the English and Scotrisn 
borderers. The great families, Douglas and Percy, whose estates 
lay contiguous to each other, were at continual variance. On 
one occasion they met at Otterburn; an obstinate battle ensued, 
in which the English were routed, but the Earl of Douglas was 
slain. The celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace was written to 
commemorate the single combat between Douglas and Percy. 
Robert died in 1390, and was succeeded by his son under the title 
of Robert III. 

2. The reign of this prince was rendered unhappy through the 
conduct of his turbulent nobles. The Duke of Albany, the bro- 
ther of the king, a man of the greatest ambition and cruelty, hav- 
ing represented to Robert some misconduct of his son, prevailed 
on the king to deliver him into his custody. Having obtained 
possession of the person of the young prince, he conducted him 
to the castle of Falkland and cast him into a dungeon, where he 
died in a short time for want of food. 

3. Robert, now old and infirm, was unable to revenge this out- 
rage; but having another son called James, then eleven years of 
age, resolved to send him to France to avoid the power and cru- 
el ty of the duke. On his way, the young prince unfortunately 
fell into the hands of the English, by whom he was taken to Lon- 
don, and by order of Henry committed to the Tower. At the 
news of this disaster, Robert was so overpowered with grief that 
he died shortly after with a broken heart, A. D. 1405. 

4. James was detained eighteen years in captivity in England, 
during which time he adorned his mind with every valuable ac- 
complishment, and had leisure to learn the superior wisdom of 
the English laws and government. In 1424 he married Lady 
Joan Beaufort, the daughter of the Earl of Somerset. The young 
king of England presented him with a suit of gold cloth for the 
ceremony, after which he departed for Scottand, and was crowned 
the same year at Scone under the title of James I. 

5. James, on his arrival, found the affairs of Scotland very 
different from those of England. During the regency of Albany 
the kingdom was filled with great disorders, and the royal autho- 
rity had fallen into utter contempt; in every section of the coun- 
try some barbarous chieftain ruled at pleasure, without regard to 
the authority of the king or the interests of the people. The first 
object of James was to curb the exorbitant power of the nobility. 
A statute was passed in parliament, by which the leagues and 
combinations which rendered them so powerful were declared 
illegal. He caused a number of the most refractory to be arrested 
and brought to trial; the king himself presided in person, dressed 
in his royal robes, with the sceptre and globe in his hand. They 
were found guilty and publicly executed. 

Of the Earls of Douglas and Percy? On one occasion, what took place? When did 
Robert die?— 2. What is said of the reign of this prince? Of the Duke of Albany? 
Where did he conduct the young prince? — 3. What is said of Robert? On the way, 
what happened to the prince? At the news, what is said of Robert? — 4. How long 
was James detained in captivity? In 1424, what did he do? With what was he pra- 
scnted by the king of England? — 5. On his arrival, how did he find the affairs of Scot- 
land ? What was the firs' act o r James Whai. did he cause? 



SCOTLAND. 221 

6. James haying tnus reduced order in his kingdom, and being 1 
a prince of refined accomplishments and the most elegant scholar 
or his age, turned all his attention towards the improvement and 
civilization of his subjects. But the check that he had given to 
the power of the nobility had irritated the whole body, and they 
only waited a favorable opportunity for conspiring against him. 
While holding a feast at Perth he had taken up his abode at the 
Convent of Blackfriars, there being no palace or castle conveni- 
ent, and had quartered his guards among the citizens. A con- 
spiracy was entered into, at the head of which appeared the earl 
of /Jtlwl and Sir Robert Graham, and this was deemed a favor- 
able moment for carrying it into execution. 

7. The king had passed the 20th of February, 1437, in various 
amusements with his nobles and the ladies of his court, and was 
cheerfully conversing with his queen and her attendants, when 
suddenly a noise was heard and the flaming of torches was seen 
in the convent gardens. At the first alarm, the king, judging that 
his life was in danger, ordered the doors to be closed, while he 
endeavored to effect his escape. Lady Catharine Douglas has- 
tened to bolt the outer door of the hall, but not finding the bar, 
she resolutely pushed her arm through tne staples, which was 
broken by the conspirators in forcing the door. Dunbar, a young 
nobleman who attempted to guard the ante-chamber, was struck 
dead ; and the queen herself received several wounds from the 
assassins. James, who was remarkably active and strong, de 
fended himself for some time with great resolution; but at length, 
overpowered by numbers, he fell under the repeated blows of the 
conspirators. 

8. The traitors immediately retreated to the Highlands, but by 
the unremitting exertions of his queen they were all taken in the 
short space of a month, brought to trial, and executed. The earl 
of Jit hoi, to whom it had been predicted that he should die a king, 
was crowned with a red-hot diadem as king of traitors; and aftei 
that horrible ceremony, he was beheaded. 

James I. was murdered in the forty-fourth year of his age, and 
in the thirteenth of his reign. He was one of the wisest -4nd most 
accomplished sovereigns that ever swayed the Scottish sceptre. 

9. James II. succeeded his father to the throne at the early age 
of six years, while Ihe affairs of state were chiefly under the direc- 
tion of Alexander Livingston and Sir William Crichton. 

At this period the house of Douglas had arrived at the height 
of its power. The Douglases were remarkable for their courage 
and military talents, also for the pomp of their retinue and the 
number of their armed followers. In 1438 the earl of JDohglas 
died, leaving two sons, the eldest a youth of sixteen. Livingston 
and Crichton thought this a favourable opportunity for crushing 
foi ever the powerful house of Douglas. With this intention 

6. To whai did James turn his nttentic* ? At Perth, where did he take up h.s abode' 
What was entered into against him? — 7. Fowdid the king pass the 20th of February ¥ 
At the first alarm, what was done? What is said of Lady Catharine? Of Dun-ai ? 
Of James?— 8 What is said of the traitors? Of the Earl of Athol? When did Jamea 
die ? What was he ? — 9. Who succeeded ? in 1438, what took place ? V\ hat is reiaied 
of Livingston and Crichton, ar.vi what was the fate of the '.wo sons ci" Doug.as? 

19* 



222 SCOTLAND. 

they invited the young- earl and his brother to court, as companions 
for the young king. Without suspecting the base design in con- 
templation, they accepted the invitation and set out with their 
attendants to Edinburgh castle. They were received with every 
mark of respect, especially by James, who had no suspicion of 
the treacherous intentions of his guardians. A splendid enter- 
tainment was given them, in the midst of which a party of armed 
men rushed into the apartment, and seizing upon the unsuspect- 
ing companions of James, dragged them into the court of the 
castle, where,undergoing a mock trial for the insolence of their 
ancestors, they were condemned and beheaded. 

10. James II. is said to have been a handsome man, and of a 
quick, impetuous temper. His reign was distinguished by his 
strenuous efforts to humble the power of his haughty nobles. In 
1460, he laid siege to the castle of Roxburgh for the purpose of re 
covering it from the hands of the English. During the siege, 
James ordered the artillery to fire upon the castle, when one of 
the guns burst, and killed him upon the spot, in the twenty-ninth 
year of his age. 

11. James III., who succeeded his father, possessed neither his 
abilities nor his talents. He secluded himself in the castle oi 
Stirling, where he devoted himself to pursuits ill becoming a 
sovereign, and raised the indignation of his barons by his attach- 
ment to unworthy favorites*. At length a powerful league was 
formed against him, which was joined by most of the southern 
lords. ( The king marched towards the north, and having arrived 
at Stirling, was refused admittance by the governor. He then 
demanded his son, but was told that the young prince had been 
carried off by the rebel lords. 

12. Upon receiving this intelligence, the king immediately ad- 
vanced at the head of thirty thousand men to meet the insurgents. 
The army was arrayed in three divisions, the king himself com- 
manding the rear. The battle commenced with fury on both sides, 
and for some time was sustained with equal success. At length 
the western borderers charging with their long spears, bore down 
all before them ; James, unable to stand the charge, turned and 
fled. As he retreated, he passed by a small hamlet near a mill ; 
his horse taking fright at a woman who came out for water, sud- 
denly turned, and precipitated the king to the ground, who being 
heavily armed, and stunned by the fall, was unable to rise. The 
people soon collected, and removed him into the mill. When he 
recovered, he called out for a priest. Being asked by the miller's 
wife, who he was, he replied : " I was your king this morning." 
The woman, struck with surprise, hastened out and called loudly 
for a priest to attend the king. Upon this a stranger rode up ana 
said : " I am a priest, lead me to the king." He was immediately 
introduced, and kneeling down, asked James if he thought he was 
dangerously injured. The king replied that he thought not, but 

10. What is said of James? How was he killed ?— 11. Who succeeded ? What is 
Baid of him? What was formed against him? — 12. On receiving this intelligenre 
what did the king do ? Describe the battle ? As he retreated, what happened ? Ben.g 
»8ked who he was, what did he reply ? 



SCOTLAND. 223 

in the mean time, desired that his confession might be heard, and 
that he might receive absolution. " This shall absolve you," re- 
plied the assassin, and drawing a poniard, plunged it into the 
breast of the unhappy monarch. Such was the unfortunate end 
oi James III., in the thirty-sixth year of his age. 

13. The throne was immediately occupied by his son and suc- 
cessor. James IV., a great and accomplished prince, respected by 
his nobles, and beloved by his subjects ; he loved magnificence, 
and his court was renowned throughout Europe. He bitterly regret- 
ted his misfortune, in being compelled to appear in the field with 
the rebel lords ; and considering himself in a manner accessory to 
his father's death, he imposed upon himself a voluntary penance, 
which he continued to observe during the remainder of his life. 
He caused an iron girdle to be made, which he wore under his 
clothes ; and, as if desirous that his penance might increase with 
his age, he every year added a new link to its weight. 

14. In 1502, he married the princess Margaret, daughter of 
Henry VII. of England, an accomplished and virtuous woman. 
James, who excelled in all the martial exercises, and particularly 
delighted in tilts and tournaments, was eager for an occasion to 
display his prowess. During the reign of Henry VIII., the har- 
mony which had subsisted between England and Scotland began 
gradually to weaken, until at length it broke out into open rup- 
ture. James, contrary to the advice of the ablest of his ministers, 
and against every entreaty of his queen, resolved upon the inva 
sion of England. 

15. Having with much difficulty obtained the consent of par 
liament, he gave orders for the forces of the kingdom to meet hirr. 
at Edinburgh. After haying completed his preparations, the king, 
on the twenty-second of August, entered England at the head of 
his army, attended by all the flower of the Scottish nobility, and 
pitched his camp on Flodden Field. Here he was met by the 
English army, commanded by the Earl of Surrey, who, confident 
of his superior strength, endeavored to bring the Scottish king to 
an engagement. 

16. After some mutual suspense, the signal for the battle was 
given ; and the combatants on both sides rushed to the contest 
with equal vigor. At the first onset, the forces of James threw 
the right wing of the English into disorder ; but at that moment, 
Thomas Howard, at the head of his English division, bore down 
upon the Scots, while at the same time they were charged in the 
rear by Sir Edward Stanley. Dreadful was the carnage that now 
ensued. The king fought on foot in the thickest of the contest. 
His nobles, to whom he was dear, pressed, and entreated hin; to 
escape. Night at length put an end to tlu-. conflict, during which 
the Scottish army silently withdrew, leaving the king and the 
flower of the nobility numbered among the slain. 

Wh it was his end ? — 13 By whom was the throne occupied ? "What did he regret ? 
Waai did 1 e cause ? — 14. Whom did he marry ? In what did he e.ccel ? During; his 
reign -what was weakened? — 15. When did he enter England ? Where did he pitcft 
his car.ip ?— 16. After the signal was given, what is said of the comba'-ants? Describe 
the battle ? What was tne fate of James ? 



224 SCOTLAND. 

17. James the V., who succeeded his father, was then an infant 
of only a year old ; during his minority, the office of regency was 
conferred on the Duke of Albany. The Duke, however, being a 
native of France, and quite unacquainted with the manners and 
customs of Scotland, met with considerable opposition from the 
turbulent nobles; and after an unsuccessful struggle, he volunta- 
rily resigned his office, and retired to France. The king, now in 
his thirteenth year, assumed the reins of government, with eight 
persons appointed as his chief counsellors, of whom the Earl of 
Angus was the most prominent. James bore the empty title of 
king, while the ambitious earl exercised the regal authority. His 
person was guarded by a body of one hundred men; all the 
higher offices of his household were filled by members of the 
Douglas family, and relatives of Angus. 

This was a restraint which the young king reluctantly bore, 
and waited every opportunity to free himself from the power of 
the .earl. Having at length effected his escape, he rode to Stir- 
ling, assembled around him his faithful adherents, and issued a 
proclamation, declaring any of the Douglas family a traitor, who 
should dare to approach' within twelve miles of his person. Angus 
and his adherents were accused of treason in parliament, tlieir 
goods were forfeited, and they themselves driven into exile. 

18. The education of James had been much neglected; his 
character was that of a great but uncultivated mind ; his passions 
were violent, yet he was distinguished for the affability of his de- 
portment. Henry VIII. having declared war against Scotland, 
James prepared to defend his dominions. At the approach of the 
Scottish army, the English retired; James proposed to pursue 
them ; but his barons resolutely refused to advance beyond their 
own borders. The king, mortified and disappointed, disbanded 
his army, and returned to his capital. Shortly after this, it was 
proposed to make an attack upon the English borders, and the 
troops for this purpose were placed under the command of Oliver 
Sinclair. But the barons, indignant to see a person of inferior 
rank placed over them, basely surrendered their whole army, 
consisting of ten thousand men, to the enemy, without the slight- 
est resistance. _ When the news of this event was brought to the 
king, he burst into a transport of rage ; after which a distressing 
melancholy seized upon his mind. , While in this state, he was 
informed of the birth of his daughter, afterwards the unfortunate 
Queen Mary. At this news he exclaimed : " It will end as it be- 
gan ; the crown came with a woman, it will go with one. How 
many miseries await this poor kingdom." These were his last 
words ; he expired of a broken heart, in the thirty-first year of his 
age ; A. D. 1542. 

19. Mary, Queen of Scots, so celebrated for her misfortunes, 
was but a few days old at the time of her father's death. Hamil- 

17. By whom was he succeeded ? In his thirteenth year, what did the king do ? What 
13 said of his person ? Having effected his escape, what did he do ? — 13. What was his 
character ? What was done by Henry VIII. ? What, did James propose ? What did 
'he barons do? What after this was proposed ? What did the barons again do ? A* 
this news what is said of the king? Of what was he informed ? What did" he exclaim? 
—10. What is said of Mary, Quewi of Scots ? 



SCOTLAND. 225 

ton, Earl of Arran, was appointed regent of the kingdom. Pro- 
posals were made by Henry the VIII. of England, of marriage 
between the infant queen of Scots, and his son Edward, who was 
then also a child. The proposals were rejected by the Scots, 
in consequence of which hostilities were declared by the two 
countries, which were carried on for some time with various 
success. 

20. All prospects of a union between Mary and Edward being 
now at an end, it was resolved that she should form an alliance 
with the Dauphin of France, and should be sent to that country 
that she might be educated at the French Court. Accordingly, 
in 1648, the young queen then in her sixth year, embarked for 
France, while her mother Mary of Guise, was made regent of 
Scotland, in place of Hamilton. On the death of Queen Mary of 
England, Elizabeth, her sister succeeded to the throne of that 
country. But as the divorce between Henry and his first queen 
had never been ratified by the pope, the Catholics naturally re- 
garding Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, as 
illegitimate, looked upon the queen of Scotland, the grand-daughter 
of Margaret, Henry's sister, as the rightful heir to the English 
crown. Mary was induced to assert her claim ; money was coined, 
on which Mary and Francis assumed the title and arms of England 
and Scotland. 

21. The reformers in Scotland, assisted by Elizabeth, had taken 
up arms against the queen regent, and the English army under 
the command of Lord Grey, having entered Scotland, was joined 
by the members of the congregation from all parts of the king. 
dom. '1 he queen regent, unable to withstand their united forces, 
retired to the castle of Edinburgh v/here she shortly after died. 
She was a princess possessed of great abilities and many amiable 
qualities. After her death, peace was restored and a treaty con- 
cluded, by which great concessions were made to the Reformers, 
During the contest, many of the most splendid churches and 
beautiful buildings were demolished by the Reformers: the abbeys 
and monasteries, with the cells of the monks, were levelled to the 
ground. 

22. In 1560, Francis II. of France died ; after which Mary 
resolved to return to her native kingdom. During her residence 
in France, her education had been particularly attended to; she 
was mistress of several languages ; wrote both prose and verse 
with elegance and ease ; excelled in music and all the accom- 
plishments of her sex. She was condescending and gay in her 
manners, graceful in all her movements, and was reputed to have 
been the handsomest woman, at that period, in Europe. With the 
deepest regret, she bid adieu to France, where she had passed the 
happy scenes of childhood, and after a short passage, landed at 
Leith in her own dominions, where she was received with every 

What proposals were made, and how were they received ? — 20. All prospects of a 
union being ended, what » as resolved ? As the divorce, &c, had never been ratified, 
what did the Catholics legard and look upon ? What was j\lary induced to do? — 21, 
What is said of the Reformers ? Of the queen regent ? During the contest, what took 
place? — 22. In 1560, what happened? What did Mary resolve to do? What is said 
of her education and accomplishments? Where did she land? 



226 SCOTLAND. 

demonstration of joy by her subjects and nobles, who conducted 
her to Holy rood, the palace of her ancestors. 

23. As she rode through the streets of the capital, the inhabit- 
ants were dazzled by her splendor, and struck with admiration 
of her beauty. Her warlike nobles, as they crowded around her, 
were softened into the deepest reverence. Happy for Mary, if she 
could have gained equally the affection of all her subjects. But 
there was one class over which all her gentleness could not exert 
the slightest iniluence. She was a Catholic ; the Reformers, 
therefore; regarded her as an enemy to their religion, although 
she had early declared her determination to molest no one for the 
exercise of religion. The reformed preachers spoke openly against 
her with the most intemperate violence ; Knox even boasted that 
he had spoken so roughly to her, when she condescended to ex- 
postulate with him, as to bring tears from her eyes. On the Sun- 
day after her arrival, she had mass celebrated in the chapel at 
Holyrood, but such was the intolerant spirit of the populace, that 
the priest narrowly escaped being murdered at the altar. 

24. The most powerful princes of Europe solicited the hand of 
the Scottish queen. But Mary rejected them all, and turned her 
affections towards a young nobleman of high birth, connected 
with the royal family both of England and Scotland. This was 
Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, the eldest son of the Earl of Len- 
nox, a man whose only recommendation seems to have been his 
personal appearance and external accomplishments. They wero 
married on the 29th of July, 1565. 

25. Shortly after her marriage, an insurrection was excited 
against her, at the head of which appeared the Earl of Murray, 
Mary's natural brother. The queen appealed to the loyalty of her 
subjects, and the alacrity with which they responded to the call, 
proved her popularity. She rode at their head to inspire them 
with courage, and lead them against the insurgents ; the insur- 
rection was soon quelled, and order again restored. 

26. Mary soon found that her union with Darnley was likely to 

Eroduce but little comfort or pleasure. He was a man of no sta- 
ility of character: naturally haughty^ and jealous; rendered 
giddy by the height to which he was raised by his marriage with 
the Queen of Scotland, he demanded the crown matrimonial, that 
is, an equal right in the crown with his consort. This concession 
Mary refused, without the consent of her parliament. He grew 
impatient, and set no bounds to his resentment. In conjunction 
with several of the nobles of his court, he determined on the 
death of Rizzio, the queen's Italian secretary. This atrocious 
deed was perpetrated at Holyrood palace, in the very presence 
of the queen and several ladies of her court. 

27. Darnley, a few months after this event, being seized with 
a violent illness, was advised, as soon as the^ state of his health 
would permit, to remove to a house near Edinburgh, called the 

23. What is said of her as she rode through the capital ? What was she ? What 
happened on the Sunday after her arrival ?— 24. What is said of the princes of Europe ? 
On whom did Mary turn her affections ?— 25. After her marriage what took place ? 
What is said of the queen ?— 26. What did she soon rind? What did he demand? What 
did he do ?— 27. A few months after this event, what is said of Darnley ? 



SCOTLAND. 227 

Kirk of Field, for the benefit of the air. Mary frequently visited 
him here, with every mark of affection. On the 9th of February, 
1567, the house in which the king resided was blown up with 
•gunpowder; his body, with several of his attendants, was thrown 
into an adjacent garden. 

28. The suspicion of the murder fell upon the Earl of Both- 
vi el 1, and the queen herself was accused of being - an accomplice 
[n the death of her husband. In a few days, the Earl of Lennox 
came forward and openly accused Both well. Bothwell and 
several others were impeached as the murderers, and a day was 
appointed for their trial. At the appointed time, Bothwell ap- 
peared in Edinburgh to stand his trial, accompanied by a large 
body of soldiery, and attended by four thousand gentlemen. A 
motion made by Lennox to suspend the trial for forty days, was 
rejected; and no prosecutor appearing, the jury, with the consent 
of ihe nobles and gentlemen, returned a verdict in favor of the 
accused. Bothwell, disregarding the murmurs of the people 
against this mockery of justice, invited the nobles to a splendid 
entertainment, and prevailed on them to sign a bond, in which 
they not only declared him innocent of the king's death, but re- 
commended him to Mary as the most suitable person for her 
future husband. 

29. Shortly after this, as Mary was returning from Stirling, 
where she had been on a visit to her son, she was met by Bothwell, 
at the head of a thousand horse, and led captive to the castle of 
Dunbar, from which she was only released after she consented to 
become his wife. Mary requested time, that she might consult 
the King of France, and her relations of the house of Guise. But 
the ambition of Bothwell was too impatient to run the hazard of 
delay. The only remaining obstacle, his marriage with Janet 
Gordon, the sister to the Earl of Huntly, was in a few days re- 
moved by a divorce, which he obtained on the grounds of consan- 
guinity. In the short space of one month after his trial, Bothwell 
led the queen to the court sessions, where she forgave him the 
outrages committed against her person, and created him Duke of 
Orkney. On the following day, they were married in the hall of 
Holyrood House. 

30. To explain this extraordinary transaction, would too fat 
exceed the limits of these short outlines; suffice it to say, that 
many of the ablest historians have deduced the clearest evidence 
to prove, that Mary was innocent of all participation in the death 
of her husband, and that her marriage with Bothwell was effected 
by force.* 

31. The nobles, roused by the insult cast upon themselves and 
their sovereign, flew to arms. A battle was fought at Carberrp 

*See her Life, by H. Bell, Esq., vol. ii.. page 221. Dr. Lingard's History of England, 
vol. vii., page 235. Andersor >>age S9 — 102. 

Or. the 9lh of February. 1507, what took place? — 28. On whom did the suspicion 
fall? What is said of Both well and several others? What did the inry do ? What 
did Bothwell now do? — 2... After this, what is related of Mary? What did she re- 
guest? What ohstacle was in the way? Where did Bothwell lead the queen? — HQ 
What have many of the ab'^st historians deduced" —31. What is said of the noble? 



228 SCOTLAND. 

Hill, iii which the forces of the queen were routed ; Bothwell fled 
from the field, and Mary surrendered herself into the hands of 
the lords, and was conducted by them to Edinburgh. As the 
queen rode through the streets of the capital, she was accosted in 
the most insulting language by the populace, and upbraided as 
the murderess of her husband. On the following morning, she 
was escorted by a strong force, and conveyed to the castle Loch- 
leven, situated on a small island in the middle of a lake. 

32. Here she was compelled to resign her crown in favor of 
her infant son, and the Earl of Murray was immediately appointed 
regent. Mary, after languishing in captivity for some months, 
effected her escape, and assembling her faithful adherents around 
her, made an unsuccessful effort to regain her crown. She was 
met by the regent at Langside, and after an obstinate engage- 
ment, the queen's forces were completely routed. Mary having 
witnessed the defeat of her arms, contrary to all the entreaties 
of her friends, took the fatal resolution of throwing herself upon 
the mercy of Elizabeth, the English queen, from whom she re- 
ceived the warmest expressions of friendship and offers of pro- 
tection. Accordingly, on the 16th of May, she crossed the Sol way 
in an open fishing boat, with a few attendants, and landed on the 
English shore. 

33. But Elizabeth, instead of affording the promised protection, 
sent the unhappy queen to Tutbury castle, where she was placed 
in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury. Various circumstances 
contributed to render Elizabeth jealous of her rival, the chief 
of which was her pretension to the English crown. For eighteen 
years the Queen of Scots languished in captivity in the dominions 
of her cousin. At length the English government resolved to 
crown the measure of her sorrows by an ignominious death. After 
much affected delay and apparent regret, Elizabeth signed the 
warrant for Mary's execution. 

34. When the messengers sent to inform her of her fate arrived 
at Fotheringay castle, they found Mary, with her female attend- 
ants, engaged in evening prayer. She received them with her 
usual serenity, and heard her sentence read with the greatest 
composure. After which, placing her hand upon her Bible, she 
solemnly protested her innocence of the crimes laid to her charge, 
particularly that of conspiring against the English queen. The 
Earl of Kent observed, that as the book was a Romish Bible, her 
oath, therefore, was of no avail. Mary replied, that her oath on 
that account was the more solemn, as she herself was a Catholic. 
Being informed that her execution would take place on the fol- 
lowing morning, she began immediately to prepare for that trying 
scene, and asked that she might be allowed to see her confessor, 
who had not been permitted to visit her for some time previous ; 

What battle followed ? Wkt't is said of Mary ? On the following morning, where 
was she conveyed? — 32. What was she compelled to do heie? What did Mary do 
afteT some months ? Where was she met? What resolution did she take ?— 33. What 
:s said of Elizabeth ? How many years did the queen languish in captivity? A« 
ength, what was resolved ? — 34. How did the messengers find Mary? How chil she 
receive them? What did she protest ? What did the Earl of Kent observe ? WhaJ 
did Mary rep'.y ? Y\ hr* Hid she ask? 



SCOTLAND. 229 

this only request, however, was denied her ; she was refused the 
consolation of the last rites of her religion. _ 

35. On the evening previous to her execution, she wrote seveial 
letters ; one to the king of France, and another to Elizabeth, in 
a mild and dignified style, in which she expressed her gratitude 
that the period of her sorrowful pilgrimage was drawing to a 
close, and requested that her remains might be conveyed to 
Prance, and placed beside tiie relics of her mother. Before re- 
tiring, she called together her servants, and taking a glass of 
wine, she drank to them all. They pledged her in turn upon 
their knees, and asked her pardon for any neglect in their duty. 
On her part, she condescended to ask their forgiveness for any 
offence towards them, and after distributing among them what 
remained of her money and jewels, she took her leave of them in 
the most affectionate manner. 

36. She retired to rest at her usual hour, although she slept but 
little, being engaged the greater part of the night in prayer. As 
it inclined towards morning, she arose and dressed herself in a 
rich robe of silk and velvet. When the sheriff entered her room 
and informed her that the fatal hour had arrived, she replied that 
she was ready, and followed him with a cheerful countenance. 
On passing through the hall she met Sir Andrew Melville, the 
master of ner household, who, in tears, lamented the ill-merited 
fate of his mistress. She told him not to weep, but rather to re 
joice, that she was so soon to be released from all her afflictions. 
She then delivered to him her last farewell to all her friends, and 
to her son in particular. Up to this moment Mary seemed to 
bear all the circumstances of the trying scene with a fortitude 
that elicited the admiration even of her enemies. At the mention 
of her son, however, she was no longer able to restrain the emo- 
tion of her heart; all the love, the affection, and tenderness of a 
mother was recalled — she burst into tears. 

37. She advanced to the hall of execution, holding in her hand 
a crucifix of ivory, ascended the scaffold with a majestic air, and 
took her seat upon a chair, while the Dean of Peterborough, in a 
discourse, exhorted her to renounce the faith of her ancestors, 
and die in the Reformed religion. Mary replied that she had 
been born in the Catholic religion, in that she had lived, and in 
that she had resolved to die. She then offered up her prayers 
aloud for the Catholic church, for her son, and for her cousin, 
Queen Elizabeth. Having taken her last farewell of her faithful 
attendants, without the least emotions of fear, she calmly resigned 
her head to the block, which was severed from her body by^ the 
second stroke of the axe. Thus ended the eventful life of the 
illustrious Queen of Sc f s, an event which has stamped an indeli- 
ble stain upon the memory of Elizabeth. 

35. On the evening previous to her execution, what did she do? Before retiring, 
what did she do ? What did she ask ?— 36. Wl.«c did she do ? As it inclined towards 
morning? When the sheriff entered, what did she reply? Whom did she meet? 
What did she tel and deliver to him ? At the mention of her son. what is said of 
Mary? — 37. How did she advance to the lull of execution ? What did .Mary reply 1 
For what did sns effer her prayers ? Having taken leave of her attendants, what did 
she do ? 

9C. 



230 IRELAND. 

38. James VI., who was only an infant when placed upon (he 
throne, assumed the reins of government at the age of fourteen. 
His partiality to unworthy favorites excited against him the in- 
dignation and jealousy of his nobles. In consequence of which 
several conspiracies were formed against him, and on several 
occasions the king narrowly escaped with his life. There was no 
event of importance occurred during his reign in Scotland, In 
1603, Elizabeth of England died, having previously appointed 
James her successor to "the English throne. On the Sundav be- 
fore his departure for England, he repaired to the church of St. 
Giles, and took a solemn farewell of his Scottish subjects. On 
the 7th of May he entered London, and was received with shouts 
of approbation by the people. From this period the. history of 
Scotland becomes united with that of England. During the 
reign of Queen Anne, the legislative union between England and 
Scotland was effected, by which the latter was deprived of her 
national parliament, and both included under the common title 
of Great Britain, A. D. 1707. 



IRELAND. 



SECTION I. 



1. The early history of this country is greatly involved in ob- 
scurity, and lias afforded a subject of research lor antiquaries 
for nearly two centuries. The first inhabitants of Ireland, ac- 
cording to the best authorities, were originally descended from 
the Ceits, who first peopled the western part of Europe. This 
appears probable from the striking similarity between their modes 
of worship, their objects of adoration, and the language of that 
ancient people, the purest dialect of which still exists in Ireland. 

2. By consulting the ancient authors, it will appear reasonable 
that, while England was peopled from the coasts of Gaul, Ireland 
received her population directly from the shores of Celtic Spain. 
It is at least certain, that between these two countries relations 
of affinity had been at an early period established, and the western 
coasts of Spain were the immediate regions from which the com- 
munication was maintained. That the. country was inhabited at 
a very remote period of antiquity is admitted by all impartial his 
torians : but to pursue the early history of Ireland to that extent 
necessary to give a clear view of this early period, would too fai 
exceed the limits of these outlines; therefore a few particulars 
must suffice. 

Z z . What is said of James VI ? In 1603. -vhat took place ? On the Sunday befflM 
his departure, what did he do ? Durinc the :ei<m of Que^n Anne, what was efTeoed^ 

1. "What is said of the early history ? The first inhabitants ? How docs this appear 
Drohable ?— 2. By consulting the ancient au'hoi^ what -wil 1 appear reasonable f 
vVhat is ce: tain ? What is admitted ? 



IRELAND. 231 

3. The religion of the early inhabitants was similar to that of 
nearly all the eastern nation?. The chief object of adoration was 
the sun, under the name of Baal or Bel. They also adored the 
moon, under the title of Re. The adoration of tire, once common 
to all pagan nations, constituted also a part of the Irish worship. 
Anr.ually, at the time of the vernal equinox, the great festival of 
La Baal-tinne, or the day of Baal lire, was celebrated, and in 
every district of Ireland it was strictly ordered that all the fires 
should be extinguished, and no one was permitted to light them, 
under pain of death, until after the pile ol the sacrifice in the palace 
of Tara was kindled. "With the worship of fire that of water was 
usually associated ; hence we find that certain fountains and wells 
were held sacred among the Irish. The priests who were held in 
the highest veneration on account of their learning, were called 
Magi or Druids. 

4. Irelaud, at an early period, was divided into a number of small 
principalities, each governed by its own king, and the whole subor- 
dinate to a superior monarch, who had, rather nominally, the con- 
trol over their proceedings. In addition to the chief king of each 
province, every subordinate prince, or head of a large district, also 
assumed the title of king, and exercised within his own dominions 
all the powers of sovereignty. To the right of primogeniture, so 
generally acknowledged in those ages, no regard was paid by the 
Irish. "Within the circle of the relations of reigning princes, all 
alike were eligible to succeed him. The monarch himself was not 
only created by election, but even previous to his death a successor 
was chosen by the same process. From this state of things, 
so badly des-igned for the preservation of order, we may easily infer 
that discord frequently prevailed. The crown itself was often re- 
garded as a prize to the strongest ; hence faction pervaded all 
ranks of the people, from the cottage of the peasant to the palace 
of the supreme monarch. 

5. Two centuries previous to the Christian era, the Irish annal- 
ists inform us, that king Kimboah, the monarch who then occupied 
the chief throne, was the seventy-fifth king of Ireland. Among 
the long list of kings who have passed like a shadow through this 
dim period of Irish history, the name of Oilam Fodhla is distin- 
guished as an eminent legislator. Many of his most useful institu- 
tions are said to have enjoyed but a short existence ; but the act 
which renders his reign an important era in legislation was the 
establishment of the Triennial Convention at Tara, the ancient 
residence of the monarchs of Ireland. 

In these periodical assemblies we observe a near approach to a 
representative form of government. The leading persons of the 
three orders, of which the political community consisted, namely, 
the king, the druids, and the plebians, were convened for the 

3. What w as the religion and chief bject of adoration? What else ? "What was 
lUinally celebrated ? With the worship >f fire what was associated ? "What is said 
D!' the priests 7 — I. How was Ireland divided? What is said of every snhord.r.dte 
prince? Of tbe light of primogeniture ? Of the -nonarch himself? From this state 
if things what may w; infer? — 5. What are we informed by the Irish annalists' 1 
What name is distinguished ? "What renders his name ar important ej a? lu these 
assemthes what do wo. observe? AVho were the leading persons ? 



232 IRELAND. 

purpose of passing such laws and regulations as the public good 
seemed to require. 

0. Among the important offices transmitted hereditary in Ire- 
land, were those of heralds, bards, and musicians. To the pro- 
fession of these arts, Ollam Fodhla assigned lands for their use. 
lie also instituted at Tara a school of general instruction, which 
afterwards became celebrated under the name of the Mur -ollam 
ham, or the college of the learned. At the commencement of the 
Christian era, the Irish throne was occupied by Conary the Great, 
of whose reign we have but few particulars. 

7. One of the most illustrious of the Irish monarchs was Cormat 
Ulfadah, who flourished about the middle of the third century 
To his munificence and love of learning the country was indebted, 
it is said, for the foundation of three academies at Tara: in the 
first of which, the science of war was taught; in the second, his- 
torical literature; while the third was devoted to the cultivation 
of jurisprudence. Under his auspices, a general revision of the 
annals of the kingdom took place; the national records, preserved 
in the Psalter of Tara since the days of the illustrious Ollam, 
were corrected and improved. According to an ancient custom 
of the country, no one could retain possession of the throne who 
was affected with any personal blemish; and as Cormac, in de- 
fending his palace against a rebellious attack, had incurred the 
loss of an eye, he was thereby disqualified for retaining the sove- 
reignty. After his abdication of the regal power, Cormac retired 
to an humble cottage, where he devoted the remainder of his days 
to literary pursuits, while he was succeeded in the throne by his 
son. 

8. No event of importance occurs in the history of Ireland from 
this period, until Christianity was introduced into the island by 
the illustrious apostle St. Patrick. The holy missionary, accord- 
ing to the most authentic accounts, was born in Gaul, of respect- 
able parentage, about the year 387. In his youth he was taken 
captive to Ireland and sold to a man by the name of Milcho, by 
whom he was employed in attending flocks. After six years of 
servitude he again escaped to his native country; and having spent 
some time with his parents, he repaired to the celebrated monas- 
tery or college of St. Martin, near Tours, where he remained for 
several years, and is believed to have been initiated into the eccle- 
siastical state previous to his leaving that institution. 

9. The attention of the Roman Pontiff had been for some time 
directed towards establishing Christianity in Ireland; at length 
Pope Celestine resolved to send a bishop to that country, and 
Palladius was the person appointed for that mission. But on the 
death of Palladius, which happened shortly after his appointment, 
St. Patrick was selected to succeed him in the mission. Having 
been consecrated bishop at Ebona, a town in the north of Gaul, 

6. What offices were transmitted hereditary ? At the Christian era who occupied 
the throne? — 7. Who was one of the most illustrious monarchs? To him, for what is 
the country indebted? What ancient custom of the country is mentioned? Wha. 
happened to Cormac ? — S. By whom was Christianity introduced ? In his youth, wha* 
■B said of him? Having escaped, where did he repair? — 9. What is said cf the atten 
tianof the Roman oontuf? On the death of Palladius who was selected? 



IRELAND. 233 

the saint proceeded on his passage to the scene of his labors, and 
after some short delay in Britain he arrived in Ireland, as the 
Irish annals inform us, in the first year of the pontificate of Sextus 
ill, A. D.432. 

10. The most abundant fruit followed his labors; proceeding 
from province to province he preached the truths of the gospel, 
and by his eloquence converted all who heard him to Christianity. 
lie was permitted to explain the object of his mission before Lor- 
gerhis, the chief king of the country, at a meeting of the great 
council of the nation then assembled at Tara, and numbered 
among his converts several members of the "Royal family. It does 
not appear evident that the monarch himself embraced Christian- 
ity, although he allowed the holy man to pursue his mission un- 
molested. In a few .years St. Patrick built a number of churches, 
and founded monasteries designed for the education of persons for 
the priesthood. He is said to have banished all the vipers and 
noxious animals from the island ; whether this be the fact or not, 
it is certain that they will not live in that country at the present 
time. The saint died at Sabhul on the 17th of March, A. I). 465, 
in the seventy-eighth year of his age ; the day of his death is still 
held in grateful remembrance by the natives of Ireland, no matter 
in what part of the earth fortune may have cast them. 

11. During the seventh and the greater part of the eighth cen- 
tury, literature flourished in Ireland ; the fame of her institutions 
spread to other climes, and numbers from all parts of Europe 
flocked to her shores to study in her schools, while at the same time 
Irish scholars were invited to impart instruction in foreign coun- 
tries. Hence we find that Charlemagne patronised several distin- 
guished Irish scholars ; and during the reign of Charles the Bald, 
the learned, though subtle John Scotus Erigena received not only 
the royal patronage, but was made the intimate companion of that 
monarch. 

12. Towards the close of the eighth century, Ireland was in- 
vaded by the Danes, who continued to hold possession of the chief 
maritime towns of the country for more than two hundred years. 
During this period an almost uninterrupted series of warfare was 
carried on between the natives and the invaders ; but to follow the 
history of the country through that period would too far exceed 
our present limits; it will be sufficient to notice the great victory 
gained by the Irish heroes on the plains of Clontarf, where the 
death-blow was given to the Danish power. As this is one of the 
most memorable battles recorded in the Irish annals, it deserves a 
particular notice. 

13. About the year 1014, the Danes, whose chief power was 
concentrated at Dublin, began to make preparations for reducing 
the entire country. For this purpose they not only collected all 
their forces from the different parts of Ireland, Scotland, lie- 
When did he arrive in Ireland ? — 10. What is said of the fruit of his labors ? What 

was he permitted ? In a few years what did St. Patrick do ? What is he said to have 
dune ? Where and when did he die? — 11. During this period, what is said of litera- 
ture ? Of the fame of other institutions ? Hence, what do we find ?— 12. What took 
place towards the close of the eighth century?' What will it be sufficient to notice ? — 
13 In 1014, what did the Danes do ? 

20* 



234 IRELAND. 

brides, and Orkneys, but, moreover, brought fresh reinforcements 
from Denmark and Normandy.' It happened at this time that 
the chief throne of Ireland was occupied by the famous Brian 
Boru. This illustrious monarch, aware of the intention of the 
Danes, lost no time in opposing their designs; and placing him- 
self at the head of his own forces of Munster, and joined by those 
of Meath under Malachy, and by the troops of Connaught com- 
manded by Teige, the king of that province, he marched directly 
to the vicinity of Dublin, and took up his position on the plain ot 
Clontarf. The Danes, confiding in the superiority of their num- 
bers, were anxious for the engagement. At the dawn of day, on 
the morning of the 23d of April, the battle was commenced, and 
raged with abating fury until the close of the evening, when vic- 
tory declared in favor of the Irish, and the Danes were driven 
with immense slaughter from the field. 

14. Brian, who is said to have triumphed in fifty battles over 
the enemies of his country, was now destined to fall in the mo- 
ment of another victory, by the hand of an assassin. In the midst 
of the rout and carnage that followed the retreat, Bruadair, one 
of the Danish chiefs, took refuge in a small wood in the vicinity 
of Brian's tent, and perceiving that the monarch was almost en- 
tirely unattended, and at that moment engaged in prayer with his 
hands upraised to heaven, rushed into the tent and plunged a 
dagger into the royal veteran's heart. The power of the Danes 
never recovered from the overthrow it received in the battle ot 
Clontarf; the blow struck on that memorable occasion by Brian., 
was followed up by his able successor Malachy; hence we find 
that their numbers gradually diminished, until at length their 
feeble remains are mingled with the general mass of the popula- 
tion, and disappear as a distinct people. 

15. Irish literature, which had been so renowned throughout 
the west, naturally decreased from its former state of advance- 
ment during the Danish invasion. The schools and monasteries, 
though frequently ravaged 'and burnt by the Danes, again arose 
from their ashes, and again resounded with the voice of instruc- 
tion and prayer as the invader retired. Hence during the eleventh 
century her literary institutions became famous abroad, and her 
shores were visited by foreign students.* 

* See Moore's History of Ireland, page 2L4— 235. 

Who at this time was the chief king 1 What did he do? When was tne Dattie 
fought, and what was the issue ? — 14. What is said of Brian ? Relate the circumstances 
of his death? What is said of the power of the Danes ? Of the blow struck on this 
occasion ? — 15. What is .'aid of Irish literature i Of the schools? Of her literary 
•institutions ? 



IRELAND. 235 



SECTION II 

From the Invasion of Ireland by Henry II. of England, j2, I). 
1171, to the Insurrection o/17*JS. 

1. After the overthrow of the Danes in the great battle of 
Clontarf nothing of importance occurs in the history of Ireland, 
until we come to the memorable struggle which terminated in the 
titter extinction of her national independence, and the subjection 
of the country to the dominion of the British crown. As early 
as the year 1155, Henry II. of England had conceived the design 
of invading Ireland ; but having neither a legal right to the pos- 
session of the country, nor any ground of a quarrel to justify an 
invasion of it, he saw that by no other means could he plausibly 
attain his object, than by concealing the real motive of his enter • 
prise under a pretended zeal for the interest of religion and mo- 
rality. 

2. With this view he applied to Pope Adrian, an Englishman 
by birth, who had been lately raised to the pontifical throne, foi 
permission to invade and subdue the Irish for the purpose of 
effecting a reformation among them. The pontiff, assuming an 
extent of temporal power, such as no pope before had thought o( 
arrogating to himself, acceded to the will of the English monarch, 
on condition that a penny for every house in Ireland should be 
annually paid to the court of Rome. Either from >he internal 
commotion of his kingdom, or from some other cause, Henry was 
restrained from carrying into effect his projected invasion of Ire- 
land for many years after he obtained the pretended grant of the 
country from the pope. 

3. An opportunity at length presented itself favorable to.his 
ambitious views. Ijermot Mac MurcJiad, king of Leinster, hav- 
ing been expelled from his country on account of his crimes and 
cruelty, fled to England for aid. On his arrival, however, finding 
that the king was absent in Normandy, he immediately sailed 
for that country, and threw himself at the feet of Henry, offering, 
if restored to his kingdom, to hold it as a vassal of the English 
Crown. The English monarch received, without hesitation, the 
proffered fealty of his new liegeman, and as the only way in 
which he could at present forward his objects, he gave him letters 
patent, for the purpose of raising forces in his dominions. 

4. Having been thus successful in the object of his mission, 
Dermot hastened back \o England, and succeeded in interesting 
in his cause several persons of distinguished rank ; among whom 
Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke, surnamed Slrongbow, was 
the most prominent; also two brothers of high rank, Maurice 
Fitz-Gerald, and Robert Fitz-Stephen, who, like the Earl of 
Pembroke himself, were persons of broken fortunes and ready to 

1. A.% early as 1155 what had Henry II. conceived? What did he see?— 2. With 
this view, to whom did he apply? What did the pontiff do?— 3. What is said of Dermot 
Mac Murchad ? What did he offer to Henry ? How was he received by the English 
monarch? What did he give him? — i. What did Dermot now do? What did ha 
prwr.ise to the Earl of r'cmbrokc.'f 



236 IRELAND. 

embark in any enterprise, however desperate, which held out 
the prospect of a speedy relief. To the Earl of Pembroke, Der- 
mot promised his daughter Eva in marriage, and to secure to him 
the succession to the throne of Leinsler, on condition that he 
would raise an efficient body of men, and transport them into Ire- 
land during the following spring. To the two brothers, Mam ice 
and Robert, he engaged to grant the town of Wexford and the 
adjoining land; while they, on their part, engaged to transport 
into Leinster a body of English and Welsh forces, to aid him in 
recovering the throne of his kingdom. 

5. Being thus assured of foreign assistance, Dermot returned, 
probably to Leinster, where, after some short time, we find him 
making the most unqualified submission to Roderic, then the 
chief, and the last of the Irish monarchs, renouncing the claim to 
the government of Leinsler, requesting to be allowed only ten 
cantreds of that province. This specious submission was only in- 
tended to disguise his treacherous designs, as his subsequentcon- 
duct proved, until the arrival of his expected succors. In the 
mean time, the English adventurers hastened to fulfil their en- 
gagements, and in the month of May, during the spring of 1169, 
the first landing of the Anglo-Normans on the coasts of Ireland, 
under the command of Robert Fitz-Stephen, took place. 

6. Dermot, full of joy at the welcome intelligence, instantly 
collected all the forces in his power, and hastened to join the in 
vaders. Tl*e first attack was made on the city of Wexford, which 
finally yielded to their arms. An instance of cruelty committed 
by the invaders about this time, deserves particular notice. Seventy 
of the principal inhabitants of Waterford were made prisoners 
during their attack upon the city ; every offer was made by their 
fellow citizens for their ransom, even the surrender of the city 
itself was proffered as the purchase of their liberty. It was de- 
termined, however, by the English chieftains, to decide the fatf] 
of the prisoners in a council of w r ar, in which the counsel of Heii' 
ry of Mount Maurice, who thus early urged a policy, which has 
been only too faithfully pursued by the British government to the 
present time, "of striking terror into the Irish," unfortunately 
prevailed- The prisoners were borne away to the adjacent rocks, 
where they were cruelly put to death, by first breaking their 
limbs and casting them into the sea. 

7. Subsequent to this event, the Earl of Pembroke arrived in 
Ireland with reinforcements, and in a short time Dublin, Water" 
ford, and other important places, fell into the hands of the Eng- 
lish. In the mean time, the English monarch having made all the 
necessary preparations, embarked for Ireland, and after a short 
voyage, landed at Crock, near Waterford, on the eighteenth of 
October, A. D. 1171. 

The design of the king, if we may judge from some of his act>, 
immediately after his arrival, was clearly to impress upon the 

What to the two brothers? — 5. After some short time, what do we find him doing? 
What was this submission intended for ? In 1169. what took place? — 6. When was 
the lira c attack made? What is said of seventy of the inhabitants of Waterford? 
What was determined ? What was tneir fate ?— 7. What took place subsequent to 
this event ? When and where did the English monarch land ? 



IRELAND. 237 

minds of (he people, (hat he came rather to protect them from the 
oppression of others, than to acquire any advantage or possession 
for himself. This refined policy, combined with a total want of 
a united or national spirit among the people, will account in some 
measure for the little resistance the royal invader met, during 
the progress which he made through the country. 

8. After receiving the homage of the king of Desmond, who 
made a voluntary oft'er of submission and tribute, Henry advanced 
at the head of his army to Lismore, and from thence to Cashel, 
where he received the submission of Donald W Brian, king Tho- 
mond. The example of these princes was followed by many of 
the inferior potentates, who, after meeting with a courteous re- 
ception, were dismissed to their territories, laden with presents 
from the English monarch. From Cashel, Henry returned through 
Tipper ary to Waterford, and after making but a short stay, he 
marched to Dublin, a city, which, from the extent of its commerce, 
had risen at that time to such importance as to become the rival 
of London. 

9. Here, we are told, he was joyfully received by the inhabit- 
ants; while all the neighboring chieftains hastened to proffer 
their allegiance ; and among the rest who now joined in the train 
of the^English sovereign, was O'Ruarc, of Breffny, and finally 
Rodcric O'Connor, who was the last chief monarch of Ireland. 
In 1175, a treaty was concluded between Henry and Rode- 
ric, in which it was solemnly determined that the kings of 
England should be, in all future time, the lords paramount of Ire- 
land; that the fee of the soil should be invested in them, and that 
all succeeding monarchs of Ireland should hold their dominions 
but as tenants or vassals of the English crown. 

10. hi 1185, Henry transferred the government of Ireland to his 
fon John, then a youth in the twelfth year of his age. The inso- 
lent behavior of the young prince and his courtiers roused the 
indignation of the Irish chieftains, who now began to perceive, 
when too late, that they had intrusted their liberties to treacher- 
ous keepers, whose object was to render them not only tributa- 
ries, but slaves. Forgetting all local and personal differences, they 
agreed to unite against the enemies of their country ; and so suc- 
cessful were they in their efforts, that according to the English 
chronicles themselves, John lost, in his different contests with the 
Irish, almost the whole of his army. Henry being informed of 
the danger that, threatened the very existence of his power in Ire- 
land, instantly despatched orders recalling the prince, and placed 
the whole power of the government, civil and military, in the 
hands of De Courcy. 

Such is the brief outline of the establishment of the English 
power over the Irish nation ; a power that has placed the two na- 
tions in the attitude in which we see them at present, the one 

What was the first design of the king?— 8. After receiving the homnge of the king 
Of Desmond, wnat did Henry do? What is said of the example of these princes? How 
din Henrv return ?— 9. Here, what are we told ? Who was among the rest ? In 1 175, 
what took place ?— 10. In 1185, what did Henry do? What is said of the behavior ot 
Ihc young prince ? What did thev egree 7 What did Henry c'.o when informed o'* this 
danger ? 



238 



IRELAND. 



subjected, without being conquered; the other a ruler without 
being a master. 

11. In 1315, Ireland was invaded by Edward Bruce, brother 
to the king of Scotland He landed on the island with three 
thousand adventurers, and was joined by several of the Irish 
lords of Ulster. After committing various devastations, a deci- 
sive battle was fought, in which Bruce was killed, and the Scots 
compelled to retire. 

In the reign of Henry VII. of England, the power of the go- 
vernor of Ireland was much diminisled by decreeing that no act 
passed, or parliament held, without the consent of the kin£ of Eng- 
land, should be deemed valid. By this measure the Irish legis- 
lature became dependent on that of England. 

James I., who valued himself greatly upon promoting the arts 
of peace, did something towards meliorating the condition of 
his Irish subjects. He abolished the customs of the country, and 
substituted English laws in their place, while no authority but 
that of the king and the laws, were permitted throughout the 
kingdom. During the civil war in England, in the reign of Charles 
I., Ireland was also disturbed by insurrection. 

12. The loyalty of the Irish to the house of the Stuarts mani- 
fested itself after the execution of the unfortunate Charles 1., in 
declaring; in favor of his son, afterwards Charles II. To quell the 
insurrection that followed, Cromwell was appointed to the com- 
mand of the parliament forces, and despatched to that country. 
After some delay at Dublin, where he landed, he determined to 
lay siege to Drogheda. The town was garrisoned by Sir A. As- 
ton, with two thousand soldiers and a regiment of horse, besides 
several volunteers. On coming before the town, Cromwell sent a 
formal summons to the governor, which was peremptorily rejected^ 
and a blockade was accordingly commenced. 

13. The besiegers were delayed some time by the want of ar- 
tillery; but when the cannon arrived from Dublin, they opened a 
tremendous fire from their batteries, which the walls of Drogheda 
were unable to resist. A practicable breach was soon made, but 
the attempt at storming was twice repulsed with great slaughter. 
Cromwell rallied his men to a third attack, and placed himself at 
their head. The resistance was vigorous; but the Irish Colonel 
Wall, being killed at the head of his regiment, his soldiers sur- 
rendered the town under a solemn promise of quarter. This en- 
gagement made by his officers, Cromwell, on entering the city, 
refused to ratify, and ordered the garrison to be put to the sword 
The inhuman massacre was continued during the two following 
days. Thirty of the brave defenders of Drogheda alone sur 
vived, and these were sold as slaves. 

14. Cromwell next took the city of Wexford, where all the 
horrors of Drogheda were renewed ; the conqueror strictly for- 

11. 1 i 1315, what took plac; ? In the reign of Hemy VII., what was diminished? 
How '. What did James I. abolish and substitute ?— 12. What is said of the loyalty of 
the im-!i in favor of the Stuarts 1 Who was sent, to the country ? To what place d;d 
he lay sieje i*— 13. On taking the town what did Cromwell order ? How many sur- 
vived?— 14. What city was next taken, and what was renewed : 



IRELAND. 239 

bade his soldiers to give quarter. Strafford, the governor, with 
some few others, escaped by swimming their horses across the 
river. The excuse for these atrocious barbarities, was the neces- 
sity, it was said, of striking immediate terror into the Irisr., in 
order to prevent them from future opposition. After these, and 
similar acts of unexampled severity, the whole country submitted 
to the power of the parliament. 

15. At the conclusion of the war, the greater part of the no 
t)ility and gentry, with the flower of the army, had sought an 
asylum in foreign lands; their estates were forfeited, and the 
English commonwealth prepared to put into execution a system 
of confiscation more extensive and complete than that which had 
been attempted by Elizabeth or James I. An ordinance was 
made out for the settling of Ireland, which declares, in its first 
clause, that it was the intention of the English parliament " to 
extirpate the Irish nation." 

16. In the year 1653 preparations were made to put this act 
into execution, and another ordinance was passed for the satisfac- 
tion of the adventurers and soldiers. By this decree the forfeited 
lands in the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, and Waterford, in 
the province of Munster; the King and Queen's counties; east 
and west Meath, in the province of Leinster ; Down, Antrim, and 
Armagh, in the province of Ulster, were all to be charged with 
the money advanced by adventurers, and to be divided among 
them by lot. Thus a material portion of Ireland was distributed 
among the followers of Cromwell and the supporters of the par- 
liament. In this division, the Puritans declared that they were 
directed by the example set by the Israelites in the division of 
Canaan, and believed that they were justified. The ancient pos- 
sessors being thus displaced, a new and strange class of proprie- 
tors succeeded in their place, and have preserved their acquisi- 
tions under every succeeding change. 

17. That the act which gave them the lands of the kingdom 
was an unparalleled public robbery and the most atrocious in 
stance of unprincipled spoliation recorded in history, no one can 
deny. Few, however, felt any scruples at that period ; the coun- 
try they deemed theirs by the right of conquest ; a right which 
they supposed to give them absolute authority over the lives and 
property of the vanquished. The sufferers were Catholics, and 
they had been taught to look upon them as idolaters, whose punish- 
ment was most acceptable service in the sight of Heaven. Many 
of the native inhabitants were kept as bondsmen and slaves to the 
new proprietors ; they were looked upon as an inferior species, a 
degraded cast, for whom they could feel no sympathy. The very 
name of Irish was with them and their descendants an expression 
of contempt, and associated with ideas of intellectual and moral 
degradation. The peasants were forbidden to leave their parishes 

What was the excuse for these barbarities?— 15. At the conclusion of ihe war what 
is said of the nobility and gentry? What ordinance wa~ made Out? — 16. In 1653, what 
was done ? By this decree what lands were forfeited? In this division what did the 
Puritans declare ?— 17. What is said of the act? How did they deem the country? 
Who were the sufferers? What is said of many of the native inhabitants Of the 
very name of Irish ? What were the peasants forbidden ? 



240 IRELAND. 

without pernvissicn, and strictly prohibited from assembling for 
religious worship or any other purpose. The Catholic clergy 
were ordered to quit the country under penalty of death ; and it 
was moreover declared a capital offence to celebrate mass, or to 
perform any ceremonies of the Catholic worship. 

18. Nothing occurred in the history of Ireland of any particu- 
lar importance until after the dethronement of James II. The 
Irish still remained firm in their allegiance to the unfortunate 
monarch, and unfurled the royal standard in his favor. On the 
12th of March, 1688, James landed in Ireland, at Kinsale, with a 
small bodv of French forces. Proceeding immediately to Dublin, 
he entered the capital amidst the joyous acclamations of all classes 
of the inhabitants. As soon as time would permit, he convoked a 
parliament to meet at Dublin ; one of the first acts of this assem- 
bly was a decree granting full liberty of conscience to the profes- 
sors of every religious creed. 

19. On the part of King William, nothing was more anxiously 
desired than to bring his rival to a decisive engagement, for every 
day that protracted the war in Ireland added to the dangers of 
his situation. He therefore resolved to conduct the campaign in 
person, and arrived in Ireland on the 14th of June. James, on 
hearing of William's landing, hastened to join his army, which 
nad retired from Dundalk to Drogheda, and took up his position 
onthe southern bank of the river Boyne. The French and Irish 
officers labored to dissuade James from coming to an engagement 
on that occasion. They represented to him that his numbers 
were inferior to those of the enemy : that the greater part of his 
forces were new levies ; that the promised succors from France 
might speedily be expected; they showed how easily he could 
maintain a defensive warfare beyond the Shannon, until France 
should strengthen his force, and delay weaken that of his rival. 

20. Courage never had formed any very striking feature in the 
character of James, but on this occasion he insisted on fighting 
with so much animation, that his officers and soldiers were pei- 
suaded that he intended to take a desperate part in the engage- 
ment, birt at the same time, with ominous precaution, he des- 
patched Sir Patrick Trant to Waterford, in order to secure a 
vessel for his escape in case of misfortune. On the last day of 
June, William's army advanced towards the river, and the Eng- 
lish king proceeded to take a survey of the enemy's lines from a 
hill which commanded an extensive prospect. Anxious, how- 
ever, to gain a nearer view of the enemy, he advanced with some 
of his officers towards the ford opposite the village of Old Bridge, 
and having spent some time in reconnoitering. sat down to re- 
fresh himself on some rising ground. While in this position 
several field-pieces were discharged at the spot, and as rhe king 
arose to mount his horse, a shot from one of the guns killed one 

What were clersry ordered ?— IS. What is said of the history of Ireland ? On the 
12th of March, 1038, what took place ? What did he convoke? What was one of the 
first acts?— 19. On the part of William, what is said ? What did he resolve? Where 
did James take up his position? What did the French officers do?— 20. What were 
ills officers and soldiers persuaded? On the last day of June what did William do* 
After this, what is related of him? 



■^^JRELAND, 241 

of his attendants and two horses, and a second ball grazed his 
right shoulder, tearing the coat and inflicting a slight wound. 

21. On the memorable morning of the 1st of July, 1690, Wil- 
liam's army advanced in three columns to the banks of the Boyne. 
After some delay in crossing the river, the engagement became 
general. The conflict was sustained for some time on both sides 
with determined bravery. William animated his soldiers by his 
presence, and frequently mingled in the thickest of the contest, 
while James remained a passive spectator on the hill of Donore, 
and he is said to have exclaimed when he witnessed the destruc- 
tive charge of Hamilton's dragoons, " Spare, spare my English 
subjects!" 

22. Before the fate of the battle was decided, James, deserting 
his brave and faithful soldiers, fled with precipitation to Dublin, 
and there falsely ascribed his defeat to the cowardice of the Irish, 
who, throughout the whole action, had displayed the greatest 
courage, and only wanted a worthy leader to have gained a 
triumphant victory. On their part, they justly ascribed the i'- 
success of the day to the cowardice and incapacity of James 
" Change kings," was their eommon cry, " and we will fight the 
battle over again." Making but a short stay at Dublin, James 
continued his flight to Waterford, and embarked for France. In 
ihe battle of the Boyne, William lost several of his most distin- 
guished and able officers. The Irish lost no person of distinction 
except the brave and courageous Hamilton, who was taken 
prisoner. When brought into the presence of William, he was 
asked by the king if he thought the Irish would fight again : to 
which the intrepid general replied : " Upon my honor, I believe 
»hey will." 

23. After the departure of James, the Irish leaders, thus left 
to themselves, for some time ably sustained the cause of their 
country. The operations of the Irish army were chiefly directed 
by the brave and patriotic Sarsfield. During the following year, 
1691, James obtained some few forces and military stores from 
Louis of France, who was still anxious to protract the war in 
Ireland. But the exiled monarch could not resist the opportunity 
of insulting his Irish subjects, even in this crisis of their fate. 
Although under a thousand obligations to the gallant Sarsfield, 
the favorite of the people, still Tie would not intrust him with 
the command of the army, but conferred it on St. Ruth., a French 
general of some reputation, whose subsequent conduct by 
no means tended to soothe the irritated feelings of the Irish gene- 
ral and army. 

24. The first operation of the French general was ihe defence 
of the town of Milone, which was taken by the English after a 
siege of several months. After the loss of Athlone, St. Ruth re- 

21. On the first day of July what took place 1 . How was the conflict sustained! 
What is said of William? Of James, and what did he exclaim?— 22. Before the fate 
Of the battle was decided, what did James do? What was the common cry ? What 
became of James? Whom did the Irish lose ? What did he reply when aeked if the 
Irish would fight again ?— 23. By whom was the Irish army chiefly directed? In 1(191 
what did James obtain ? On whom was the chief comma-id conferred ? — 24. After the 
Joss of Athlone, where did St. Ruth retire? 

21 



242 IRELAND. 

tired with his army into the county ot Roscommtn, and having 
taken up a favorable position near the ruins of the castle ot 
Aughrbn, prepared to decide the fate of Ireland by a single 
battle. The engagement was commenced on both sides with 
equal resolution; the fortune of the day seemed to incline in 
favor of the Irish; the English were repulsed with slaughter in 
every onset ; a few moments more must have sealed their destruc- 
tion. At this critical juncture St. Ruth fell by a cannon ball 
shot from the enemy's battery. This unfortunate circumstance 
changed the scale ot victory. As the fallen general had not com- 
municated his plan of action to any of the Irish leaders, no one 
was found at the moment capable of assuming the command. 
The Irish soldiers, unacquainted with the fall of their general, 
waited for new orders until it was too late to oppose the success 
of the enemy. As each troop and battalion now acted indepen- 
dently, their evolutions soon interfered with each other ; the 
cavalry became mingled with the infantry, and before the close 
of the evening their retreat became general. 

25. Before the fall of St. Ruth, the Irish had scarcely lost a. 
man ; after that event they suffered severely. The number of the 
British killed and wounded was over two thousand men; that ot 
the Irish is said to have exceeded seven thousand. General 
Ginckle, who commanded the British forces, was but little elatea 
by his victory at dughrim. He felt that it was nothing bette.* 
than a fortunate escape ; and from the spirit displayed by th§ 
enemy, he feared that the termination of the war was still fat 
distant. 

26. After the battle of Aughrim, the Irish forces retired to the 
city of Limerick, under the command of Sarsfield, who was again 
placed at the head of the army, although much controlled by the 
other leaders. As soon as time would permit, Ginckle laid siege 
to Limerick; but as the task of reducing the place seemed hope- 
less, and as both parties were weary of hostilities, it was deter- 
mined to conclude the protracted war by a treaty. Accordingly, 
on the 23d of September, a reluctant assent to this measure was 
wrung from Sarsfield by the other leaders, and on the evening oi 
the same day a cessation of arms was granted, to afford an oppor- 
tunity for settling the terms of capitulation ; and by the 3d of 
October, the articles of the Treaty of Limerick were concluded, 
and solemnly signed by the different authorities on both sides. 

27. This celebrated treaty provided, that all the Roman Ca- 
tholics should enjoy the free exercise of their religion, as in the 
reign of Charles II., and promised that their majesties would en- 
deavor to procure them further security in this particular, when 
the parliament should be convened. It was agreed that all the 
inhabitants of Limerick, all those in arms for James, should enjoy 
their estates and pursue their professions freely, as in the reign 
of Charles II., and that the Catholic gentry should be allowed to 

What did he prepare ? What is said of the engagement ? What was the fate of St. 
Ruth? What was the consequence of this misfortune? — 25. What was the loss on 
■both sides? What is said of General Ginckle? — 26. Where did the Irish forces retire? 
What was finally determined? By the 3d of October, what were concluded? — 27 By 
this treaty, what was provided ? What was agi eed ? 



IRELAND. 243 

nave E.rms, and should be required to take no oath but that of 
allegiance. 

28. Two days after the treaty was signed, a French fleet arrived 
oft' the coast, bearing reinforcements and a large supply of mili- 
tary stores. Never was there a more trying moment for the Irish 
leaders; supplies sufficient to insure them a triumphant victory 
were at hand ; but the honor of their nation was pledged ; the 
treaty of Limerick was signed y that treaty they deemed inviola- 
ble ; the French fleet was dismissed, taking with it several regi- 
ments of the Irish soldiery, who preferred to pass the remainder 
of fheir days in a foreign land, rather than live in bondage at 
nome. 

29. Unfortunately for the period of which we are speaking, re- 
ligious fanaticism, or intemperate zeal, seemed to characterize 
almost every proceeding. The treaty of Limerick was loudly 
denounced by many of the reformed clergy, and Dr. Dopping, 
Bishop of Meath, after condemning the articles of that treaty, 
declared that Protestants were not bound to keep faith with 
Papists. 

In 1695, the Irish parliament was assembled, and the first mea- 
sure of that body was to inquire into the articles of the treaty of 
Limerick. A committee was appointed to consider what penal 
laws were already in force against the Catholics, not for the pur- 
pose of repealing them, as had been promised in the treaty, but 
to add others to their number. An act was passed to deprive 
Catholics of the means of educating their children, at home or 
abroad, and to render them incapable of being guardians of their 
own, or the children of others ; a second act was passed to disarm 
all Catholics; and lastly, an act to banish all Catholic priests 
and bishops. (See History of Ireland, by \V C. Taylor, vol. ii 
p. 207.) 



SECTION III. 

The Insurrection of 1798 

L EvLtt a brief outline of this interesting portion of Irish his- 
tory cannot be given, in this short compendium ; a few of the 
most important particulars must suffice. In 1782, Ireland de- 
manded and obtained from England, the independence of her na- 
tional legislature. But it was with the utmost reluctance, and 
under circumstances of imperious necessity, that these conces- 
sions were made by the British cabinet. In 1784, the British 
parliament thought proper to annihilate the independence of the 
national legislature of Ireland, and impose new restrictions on 
}<er trade and manufactures. This treacherous and ungenerous 

88. Two days after the treaty, what arrived? What wasdone with the French fleet! 
--'29. What is said of the treaty of Limerick ? In 1G95. what took place ? What com- 
mittee was appointed? What penal laws were added? What is said of a Cuthohe 
teacher ? Of the child of a Catholic ? What rewards were offered ? 

1. In 17S2, what did Ireland demand and obtain ? In 17S4, what took place? 



244 



IRELAND. 



proceeding excited a sudden and general indignation throughout 
the country. 

2. Among the various modes of* agency adopted during this 
period, was the institution of political clubs, which were formed 
under different titles. Of these, the society of the United Irish* 
men, and the Orange Association, were the most conspicuous. In 
the month of November, during the year of 1791, the society of 
United Irishmen was instituted in the city of Dublin. The lead- 
ing objects of this association seem to have been a pure and dis- 
interested love of liberty, and was formed with the immediate 
view of combining into one phalanx as many as possible of their 
countrymen, without any distinction of creed, for the purpose of 
effecting a change in the government of Ireland, or as they them- 
selves declared : u for the purpose of forwarding a brotherhood 
of affection, a communion of rights, and a union of power among 
Irishmen of every religious persuasion, and thereby to obtain a 
complete reform in the legislature, founded on principles of civil, 

f political, arid religious liberty." Catholic emancipation and par- 
iamentary reform were the avowed objects of their pursuit. By 
the former was understood a total abolition of all political distinc- 
tions between Catholics and Protestants ; by the latter, they; 
meant to exclude the borough representation from the House of 
Commons. 

3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, the aristo- 
cracy of Ireland proceeded to array an association of their own, 
under the name of the Orange party, which was formed for the 
purpose of perpetuating the abuses and supporting the measures 
of the government, by disavowing every innovation. The leading 
features of Orangeism may be traced to a period much anterior to 
this. Sir Jonah Barrington considers, that the idea of the Orange 
society arose from the association of the aldermen of Skinner's 
alley, which owed its origin to the restoration of the old corpora- 
tion body to their former power and privileges, after the departure 
of James II. Their grand festival was held on the 1st of July, 
the anniversary of the battle of the Boyne. The charter-toast, 
the antiquity of which was of so ancient a date as the year 1689, 
was drunk by all the members present on their bare knees; the 
grand master pronounced it aloud, in the following words : " The 
glorious, pious, and immortal memory of the great and good 
King William, not forgetting Oliver Cromwell, who assisted in 
redeeming us from popery, slavery, arbitrary power, &c.[' The 
concluding part of the toast was a tissue of vulgar and impious 
imprecations on priests, bishops, deacons, &c. This toast was 
afterwards adopted by the Orange association.* 

* See Dr Madden's History of United Irishmen, vol. i., page 85. 



were tne most conspicuous associations? When was the society of United 
nstituted? What were the leading objects of this association ? What were 



2. What 

Irishmen ins 

their avowed objects of pursuit? What was understood by these? — 3. To oppose the 
objects of the United Irishmen, to what did the aristocracy proceed? What does Sir 
lonah Barrington consider? When is their grand festival held ? How is the charter 
toast drank ? What are the words ? What was the concluding part? 



IRELAND. 245 

4. In the year 1784, a new association grew into existence, 
under the name of the Peep-of-day Boys, who committed the most 
fearful depredations in the county of Armagh. In a few years, 
however, they dropped this title, and assumed that of Orangemen. 

The first Orange lodge was formed on the 2 1st of September, 
1795, at the house of a man named Sloan, in the village of 
Longhall. The members pledged themselves, by the most solemn 
oath, to support and defend, to the utmost of their power, the 
king and his heirs, so iong as he or they shall support the Protest- 
ant ascendency. 

5. In 1796, hopeless of parliamentary relief, the United Irish- 
men overcame their repugnance to foreign aid, and resolved to 
solicit assistance of France. Tone was commissioned for that 
purpose, and in the course of the summer, Lord Edward Fitz- 
gerald and Arthur O'Connor were sent over to negotiate a treaty 
between the French republic and Ireland. An armament carrying 
fifteen thousand men, with a considerable amount of arms and 
military stores, sailed for Ireland, but the fleet being dispersed 
by a violent storm, only a few vessels arrived in Bantry Bay, 
and these returned home without being able to effect a landing. 

6. In the mean time, it became the determined policy of the 
government to goad the people by torture into a premature insur- 
rection, before the organization oF their plans could be completed. 
Martial law was proclaimed in several counties ; a savage sol- 
diery were encouraged to emulate each other in acts of cruelty , 
the tortures of whipping, half-hanging, and the pitch-cap, were 
put into active operation. The humble dwellings of the peasantry 
were burned, their sons tortured or slain, their daughters sub- 
jected to all the outrages of brutal passion. At the same time, 
the most liberal rewards were held out to informers. In conse- 
quence of this, the government soon became acquainted with ah 
the proceedings of the United Irishmen, and most of the active 
leaders were arrested at Oliver Bond's house, on the 12th ot 
March. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who happened to be absent, 
eluded pursuit until the 19th of May, when, altera desperate re- 
bistance, in which he was mortally wounded, he was made pri- 
soner. The Shearses and others, who had been chosen to fill the 
places of those arrested at Bond's, were betrayed to the govern- 
ment by a militia captain named Armstrong. 

\ 7. On the 23d of May, the insurrection broke out in the coun- 
ties of Kildare and Carlow. The peasants had no arms but clum- 
sy pikes and a few guns in bad repair; they were of course easily 
defeated. The insurgents were next routed in Carlow with a 
loss of four hundred slain; and two hundred more, who fell into 
the hands of the victors, were executed by martial law. At 

Oidart Hill they were more successful ; they defeated the North 

4. .n .784, what took place ? When and ;vhere was the first Orange lodge formed? 
How do the members pledge themselves?- -5. In 1796. what did the 'United Irishmen 
resolve? Who were sent to negotiate a treaty? What armament mailed 7 What 
happened the fleet? — 6. What became the policy of the government? What was pro 
claimed? At the same time, what was held out? What followed ;n consequence 
of this?— 7. On the 23d of May, what took place? What is sam of the insurgents' 
Wliert were they more successful? 

21* 



246 IRELAND. 

Cork militia, took the town of Enniscorthy and the city of Wex- 
ford. Here, elated by success and exasperated by the cruelties 
they had received, they committed a fearful retaliation on a num- 
ber of the royalists who fell into their hands. They were again 
defeated at Ross and repulsed at Arklow; and the loss of the 
desperate battle of Ballynahinch terminated the insurrection in 
Ulster. 

8. After these defeats, the insurgents of Wexford were reduced 
to the necessity of maintaining a defensive warfare, their last 
hope being to protract the contest until assistance should arrive 
from France. Their principal encampment was on Vinegar Hill, 
a lofty eminence near the town of Enniscorthy. To this point 
therefore, the government directed all its disposable force. The 
royal army of thirteen thousand men, with a formidable train of 
artillery, approached this place in four different divisions; and 
on the 22d of June was fought the memorable battle of Vinegar 
Hill, which terminated in the complete discomfiture of the united 
forces, who were defeated with immense slaughter, not however 
for want of courage and resolution, but for the want of arms and 
ammunition. This defeat properly terminated the eventful strug- 
gle of Ireland for her national rights and redress of her griev- 
ances. The total loss of property during the contest is estimated 
at about three millions of pounds sterling. Of the royal army 
about thirty thousand were slain; but not less than fifty thousand 
of the insurgents were destroyed. 

9. Late in August, when all the disturbances had been sup- 
pressed, a small force of eleven hundred men, commanded by 
General Humbert, arrived from France and landed at Killala. 
Want of means prevented Humbert from obtaining any particu- 
lar advantage, and on the 8th of September he was forced to sur- 
render. A second attempt was made by the French Directory 
in the following month. A small squadron sent from Brest was 
discovered by Admiral Warren, and forced to engage at great 
disadvantage. The Hoche, of eighty guns, and six frigates, were 
captured; this ended the efforts of France towards the liberation 
of Ireland. 

10. Scarcely had the insurrection ended, when the question of 
the Union began to be agitated. It was so decidedly unpopular, 
that exhausted as the country was by the late commotion, its in- 
dependence might have been maintained by an appeal to arms, 
had not the minister, by a wonderful mixture of corruption and 
cunning, effectually broken the strength of opposition. The 
measure of the Union was rejected in the session of 1799, by the 
house of commons; but after the most unparalleled scenes of bri- 
bery and deception, the measure was carried in the next session 
cf the Irish parliament, which then consisted of two hundred and 

What followed the talcing of Enniscorthy and Wexford ? Where were they again 
defeated?- -8. Where was their principal encampment? What took place on the 22(1 
of June? What was ihe total loss of property? What the loss of the royal army? 
Of the insurgents?— 9. Late in August, what arrived? What wa* done in the follow- 
ing month?— 10. What now began to be agitated? What was it? When was it re- 
jected? After what manrur ani by what majority was it carried in the Irish parlia- 
ment? 



IRELAND. 247 

seventy-eight, only by a majority of forty-three votes. It was 
on the first day of January, 1801, at the hour of noon, that the 
imperial united standard was for the first time mounted on the 
Bedford tower in Dublin, while the guns of the royal battery in 
Phoenix Park announced to prostrate Ireland that her national 
independence was no more, that her guilt-stained parliament had 
effected its own annihilation. 

11. The Catholics were induced to give a species of tacit assent 
to the measure, by the promise of obtaining their emancipation, a 
piomise which was not fulfilled until nearly thirty years after 
this event, and then only wrung from the reluctant grasp of the 
Bi itish ministry. Hopes inconsistent with such a promise, were 
at the same time held out to the most violent Protestants; money 
to the amount of ^63,000,000 was distributed in bribes to all those 
who would tavor the views of government; besides this, tae enor- 
mous sum of d61,275,000 was given as a compensation to boroughs 
foi sending members favorable to the union. 

12. The great evils entailed on Ireland by the union, are the 
vast increase of her national debt and the great inequality of her 
representation in parliament. By the act of the union, Ireland 
was to have a separate exchequer, and was only to be taxed in 
proportion to her own national debt, which at that time was only 
£% 6, 84 1,2 19, while that of England reached the enormous sum 
of £420,305,944. In 1816 the British government thought pro- 
per to unite the English and Irish exchequers, in direct violation 
of the act of the union, and thus the debt of Ireland was in-creased 
to £110,730,519. As the Irish representatives in the British 
nailiament are far inferior in number to those of the English, it 
follows, as a matter of course, that no measure conflicting with 
the English interest will pass that body in favor of Ireland. 
Moreover, while Ireland is deprived of her national legislature, 
her representatives in the British parliament are obliged to reside, 
a great portion of their time, in the capital of England, thus draw- 
ing from their native country a great amount of wealth which 
would otherwise be spent at home. These and other evils which 
tend materially to retard the prosperity of the country, render the 
Repeal oi' the union a most desirable measure to the Irish people, 
for which they are making at the present time the most strenuous 
efforts. 

I-\ 1801, what was done for the first time?— 11. What is said of 'he Catholics? What 
hopes were held out to Protestants? "What sum was distributed in bribes? What 
sum was given to boroughs? — 12. What are the great evils entailed on Ireland bv 
the Union? At that time, what was the national debt of Ireland and of England" 
In 1^16, what did the British government do? By this act, what was tne debt of Ire- 
land increased to? As the Irish representatives in the British parliamcni are infenoi 
tn number to those of England, what follows ? While Irelund i* deprived of her na- 
tional legislature, what is said cf her representatives? 



SPAIN. 

1. Spain was at an early period called Hispania, or Western, 
because it was the most western situation known to the ancients 
It was also distinguished by the name of Iberia, from the river 
Iber, now Ebro. Its present name, Hispania or Spain, is said to 
be derived from a Phoenician word which signifies abounding in 
rabbits, as these animals, according to Strabo, were formerly very 
numerous in this country. The original inhabitants were the 
Celts, the same race that peopled most of the other countries of 
Europe, although the Spanish historians refer the origin of their 
nation back to the days of Tubal, the son of Japhet. 

2. Attracted by the fertility of the soil, the Phoenicians, who 
were the earliest navigators, passed over to Spain and built the 
city of Cades, now Cadiz , as early as the year 900 before the 
Christian era. The Phoenicians were displaced by the Cartha* 
ginians shortly before the first Punic war, and the Carthaginians, 
in their turn, were expelled from the country by the Romans, iu 
whose power it remained until it was wrested from them by the 
irruption of northern barbarians. The Gothic princes held pos- 
session of Spain until near the middle of the eighth century, when 
their empire was overthrown by the followers of Mahomet or the 
Saracens. 

3. The victorious infidels, known also in Spain by the name of 
Moors, in a few years possessed themselves of nearly the whole 
country, which was for some time governed by the viceroy of the 
Saracen caliphs. At the approach of the invaders, the Goths re- 
tired to the mountainous district of Asturias, where, under their 
leader Bon Pelagio, they established a kingdom, which increased 
in power and gradually extended over other parts of the country. 
Spain was divided by the Moors into a number of separate sove- 
reignties, of which the most considerable were those of Cordova 
ana Granada. For several centuries the history of Spain presents 
a continual series of contests between the Moors and the Chris- 
tians. During this long protracted struggle with the infidels, 
several distinct Christian kingdoms grew into existence, of which 
Castile, Leon, Arragon, and Navarre were the most important. 

4. In the year 1479, Ferdinand II., king of Arragon, formed a 
matrimonial alliance with Isabella, queen of Castile and Leon, 
and thus their kingdoms became united. Navarre was subse- 
quently conquered, and of all the Moorish possessions in Spain, 
the kingdom of Granada alone remained. Attracted by the 
beauty and fertility of the country, and impelled by a desire of 
expelling the determined enemies of Christianity, Ferdinand and 

1. "What was Spain early called ? What is said of its prefent name? "What were 
the original inhabitants? — 2. Who passed over to Spain? When? By whom were 
the Phoenicians displaced? What is said of the Gothic princes? — 3. "What were thfl 
in fidels named ? At their approach, what did the Goths do ? f Tow was Spain divided T 
During the struggle, what grew into existence? — 4. In 1479, what took place? Wfcal 
W said of Navarre ? 

us 



spain. 249 

Isabella formed the project of reducing Granada. Having made 
the necessary preparations, they entered the country at the head 
of their united forces, and after meeting with a gallant resistance 
from Abdali, the Moorish king, Granada was taken and the 
Moors expelled. The fall of Granada terminated the empire of 
the Arabs in Spain, after they had held possession of it for nearly 
two centuries, and the whole country became, for the first time, 
united into one monarchy. 

5. Ferdinand and Isabella, having at length subdued and ex- 
pelled the enemies of their country, turned their whole attention 
towards the internal improvement of their kingdom. Rapine and 
outrage, the natural consequence of the long and sanguinary war 
that had desolated the country, prevailed in every quarter. 
These evils they labored to remove, and by a wise and well regu- 
lated policy they succeeded in restoring order and tranquillity 
throughout their dominions. It was during this period, and 
under the patronage of Isabella, that Christopher Columbus dis- 
covered the Western Continent, an event which added an im- 
mense possession and wealth to the Spanish monarchy, and raised 
it for a time above any other in Europe. [See America.'] 

6. In 1517 Charles I. succeeded to the Spanish throne. On 
the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, he put forward 
his claim to the imperial crown ; at the same time, Francis I., 
king of France, declared himself a candidate for the empire. 
The crown had previously been offered by the electors of Ger- 
many, to Frederick, Duke of Saxony, who declined the offer and 
recommended the Spanish monarch as the most suitable person 
an whom it could be conferred. Charles was accordingly elected 
emperor in 1520, and assumed the title of Charles V. He now 
became the most powerful sovereign of Europe ; his dominions 
extended over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of 
Italy, besides his colonial possessions in America. 

_ 7. The reign of Charles was almost one unbroken series of hos- 
tilities, chiefly with his great rival, Francis I. of France. A few 
years previous to his death he formed the extraordinary resolution 
of resigning his dominions to his son Philip, who had married 
Queen IVIary of England. Accordingly, in the presence of a nu- 
merous assembly at "Brussels, having previously enumerated the 
principal events of his reign, he solemnly resigned his throne and » 
transferred the sovereign authority to his son Philip with so much 
parental affection that the whole assembly melted into tears. 
After this he retired to the monastery of St. Justin, near Pla- 
r.entia, attended only by a few domestics, without pomp or splen- 
dor. In this humble and peaceful abode the greatest monarch of 
the world ended his days. The manner in which he closed his 
eventful life was extraordinary. A short time previous to his 
death, stretching himself in a coffin, he caused the funeral rites 

What cVd Ferdinand and Isabella do? What did the fall of Granada terminate?— 
5 To what did they turn their attention? During this period what took" place ? — 6. In 
1517 who succeeded to the throne? On the death of Maximilian, what did Charles do? 
When was he elected emperor? What is said of his dominions ? — 7. What is said of 
the reign of Charles? What resolution did he form? Where did he retire ? How did 
he close his eventful l'.fe ? 



250 SPAIN. 

to be performed, and after the ceremony was over he retired Co 
his apartment in the deepest melancholy. He was soon after 
seized with a violent fever, which terminated his life in the fifty- 
eighth year of his age. 

8. Philip II. succeeded his father to the throne of Spain. The 
most important events of his reign were the revolt of the Low 
Countries, which, after a long and bloody contest, succeeded in 
establishing their independence; and his unsuccessful invasion 
of England, which ill conducted measure cost him the ruin of his 
numerous fleet, called the Invincible Armada. He was succeed- 
ed in the throne by his son, Philip III. The subsequent history 
of Spain affords but few events of interest or importance, until 
the reign ol Ferdinand VII., who wrested the sceptre from his 
father, and placed himself upon the throne ; he had not, however, 
long enjoyed the usurpation, when both father and son were com- 
pelled to resign their claim by Napoleon, Emperor of France, 
who placed his brother Joseph upon the Spanish throne. The 
Spaniards rose in opposition to this tyrannical measure, and had 
recourse to England for assistance; by their united efforts the 
French were finally expelled from the peninsula, A D. 1813. 
Since the reign of Philip III, Spain has continued to diminish in 
power and importance, and at present only holds* a secondary 
rank among the European powers. 

9. The Inquisition. Connected with the history of Spain 
there is one institution that claims a passing notice, namely, the 
Inquisition. This institution was established in different coun- 
tries of Europe, chiefly for the purpose of preventing innovations 
in the established religion of the realm. Its origin is dated as far 
back as the Council of Verona, held in the year 1184; although 
it was not legally established before the year 1233, in virtue of 
the bull of Gregory IX., addressed to the Provincial of Toulouse, 
and the superintendence of it at that period was confided to the 
order of the Dominicans, about twelve years after the deatji of 
their founder, St. Dominic. But it was only in the year 1484 
that the constitutional rules and order of the tribunal were drawn 
up and published by Cardinal Torquemada, in conjunction with 
the king of Spain. 

10. Towards the close of the twelfth century, the Albigens^s 
seemed to threaten the peace of the church and the stability of the 
state, and for the security of both it was deemed expedient to 
send among them certain ecclesiastical commissioners, to inquire 
into the nature of their errors, and to endeavor to reclaim them. 
These commissioners were called Inquisitors, and from them the 
institution derived its name-. It does not appear that the early 
inquisitors ever made use of any other arms to oppose the pro- 
gress of heresy than those of prayer, patience, and instruction, 

to 

8- Who succeeded ? What were the most important events of his reign? By whom 
was lie succeeded ? What is said of the snhsequent history of Spain"" What did the 
Spaniards do? Since the rej°:n of Philip III. what is said of Spain? — 9. Foi what was 
this institution established ? What is said of its origin ? What took place, in 14S1 ? — 
10. What is sain of the Albigenses ? What was deemed expedient? What were they; 
called ? What does not appear ? 



SPAIN 251 

rnd while it remained purely an ecclesiastical tribunal, no coer- 
cive measures were ever adopted. 

11. In the process of time the various sovereigns of Europe 
passed severe laws against all those who promulgated or obsti- 
nately maintained doctrines contrary to those established in tlieir 
respective dominions; but as the offences in those cases were 
'always of a religious nature, it became necessary to refer the 
accused to ecclesiastical judges. Hence it was that the tribunal 
of the Inquisition was adopted in different countries, when it 
ceased to be ecclesiastical, and became a civil tribunal. 

12. The following circumstances led to its establishment in 
Spain. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, the Mahometan 
power in that country was destroyed by the united efforts of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella; the Moors were expelled; still many re- 
mained, and those so mingled with the Spanish population, that it 
became difficult to discriminate between them. Their well known 
hostility to the government and aversion to Christianity caused 
thern to be a subject of continual alarm. To augment the dan- 
ger, the power and influence of the Jews, at this period, in Spain, 
became exceedingly great ; they finally broke out into open 
rebellion. The Cortes now demanded that severe and coercive 
measures should be adopted against them ; and as the danger in- 
creased, Ferdinand conceived, that, in order to save Spain, no- 
thing would contribute more effectually than the Inquisition. 
To this measure Isabella at first strongly objected : but at length 
she was induced to assent, and the institution was accordingly 
introduced about the year 1484. 

13. The tribunal was composed of one supreme head, called 
the Inquisitor General, who was either an archbishop or a bishop; 
and of eight ecclesiastical counsellors, of whom six were, always 
seculars, and two regulars, one invariably of the Dominican order. 
The inferior inquisitors possessed no power to do any thing with- 
out the approbation of the Inquisitor General ; neither could the 
latter execute any measure without the concurrence of supreme 
council. The duty of the tribunal of the Inquisition was simply 
to determine, upon the clearest evidence, whether the individual 
arraigned before it was guilty or not of those charges declared 
capital by the civil law. If guilty, the sentence was <nven accord- 
ingly. Beyond this, the Inquisitors had nothing whatever to do 
with the accused, who was then left to the secular power, to be 
dealt with according as the laws of the state had ordained. 
The ecclesiastics, who composed the tribunal of the Inquisition, 
had no power tG condemn any one to death, and on no occasion 
do we find the name of any priest inscribed on a warrant for an 
execution. 

14. The Inquisition could not be introduced into any country 
without the consent of the government; and when once esta- 

11. In the process of time what was clone by the sc »-erei<rns of Europe? What he 
Ofime necessary ? Hence what followed ?— 12. What circumstances led to its -£ta> 
blishment in Spain? What did the Cortes demand? What is said of Isabella?— 
13. Of what is the tribunal composed? What is said of the inferior inquisitors? 
What was the duty of the tribunal? What is said of the ecclesiastics w.ho composed 
the tribunal ? — 14. What ii» said of the Inquisition 1 



252 PORTUGAL. 

blished, it was generally under the immediate control of the 
sovereign. The king alone appointed the Inquisitor General, 
who in his turn nominated the particular inquisitors, subject to 
the approbation of the king. In different countries various pun- 
ishments were inflicted on those declared guilty of capital offenses 
by the tribunal of the Inquisition. At Rome no one was ever 
known to have suffered death in consequence of any sentence 
coming from the Inquisitorial tribunal. In Spain the cruel pun- 
ishment of burning to death was the usual punishment inflicted 
on those who obstinately maintained and promulgated erroneous 
doctrines, or adopted them again after having renounced them. 
The goods of the persons thus condemned were confiscated to the 
state. The other punishments were less severe, and consisted in 
some slight penance or temporary confinement. If, however, the 
accused recanted what was thought to be heterodox opinions, and 
gave signs of repentance, his trial immediately ceased, and no 
punishment was inflicted.* 



PORTUGAL. 

1. The history of Portugal is closely united with that of Spam j 
it partook of all the vicissitudes of that nation, being successively 
overrun by the Romans, Goths, and Moors. About the year 1094, 
Alphonso, king of Castile, bestowed that part of Portugal which 
he possessed, with his daughter, in marriage, on Henry, duke of 
Burgundy, who had rendered him important services during his 
contest with the Moors. Henry was succeeded by his son Al- 
phonso, who defeated the Moors in a great battle at Orique^ 
threw off the Castilian yoke, and assumed the title of king, A. D. 
1139. 

2. The reign of John I. is distinguished by his victories over 
the Castilians and Moors, but more particularly for the progress 
the Portuguese made in navigation. During the reign of John II., 
Bartholomew Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope ; and in 
a few years after this event, Vasco de Gaina doubled that Cape, 
and was the first navigator that accomplished a voyage to the 
Indies, A. D. 1497. From the reign of John I., down to the year 
1580, forms the most brilliant period of Portuguese history. It i9 
illustrated by several important discoveries, and also by the pro- 
duction of several men of learning and genius. 

* For a more detailed account of this institution, the reader is referred to the kttm 
on the Inquisition, by Count de Maistre, from which these few remarks have beer, 
chiefly taken. 

Of the King? What is said of the punishments in different countries? At Rome! 
In Spain? What was done with the goods ? If the accused recanted, what was dene? 

1. What is said of the history? About the year 1094. what took place ? Who sue- 
ceded Henry? What did Alphonso do ?— 2. i'or what is the reign of John 1 distin- 
guished? During the reign of John II., what was done? 



POLAND. 253 



3. In 1580, Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of the weak- 
ness of Portugal, occasioned by the extinction of the male line of 
the royal family, seized upon the country, and united it to his do- 
minions ; by the revolution of 1640, the Spaniards were expelled, 
and the Duke of Braganza, the presumptive heir, was raised to 
the throne, under the title of John IV. In 1807, Portugal was 
invaded by the French, on which occasion the royal family re- 
moved to Brazil, where they remained until the year 1820, when 
he again returned to Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro, his eldest son, 
as regent of that country. In 1823, Brazil renounced its allegi- 
ance to Portugal, was declared an independent empire, under 
Don Pedro, who assumed the title of emperor. On the death of 
John VI., the throne of Portugal became vacant; Pedro, emperor 
of Brazil, resigned his claim to the crown in favor of his daugh- 
ter Donna Maria da Gloria, appointing his sister Isabella regent 
during the infancy of the young queen; but Don Miguel, a 
younger brother of Pedro, usurped the throne. 



POLAND. 

1. The history of Poland exhibits but few important events, until 
near the early part of the fifteenth century, when the throne was 
occupied by Cassimer III., surnamed the Great. This illustrious 
prince founded the University of Cracow, patronized learning, 
encouraged industry and commerce ; he also furnished the nation 
with a new code of written laws. Under the reign of Segismund 
1., who was a great and accomplished sovereign, Poland attained 
to the meridian of her greatness. But of all the sovereigns who 
swayed the Polish scepter, none have been more distinguished 
than John Sobieski, who succeeded to the throne in 1074. He was 
elected, not from any hereditary right, but on account of l#s vir- 
tues and eminent military talents. He maintained a successful 
war against the Turks, and immortalized his name by obliging 
them to raise the siege of Vienna. He died in 1696, leaving the 
country prosperous and nappy 

2. Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen to suc- 
ceed Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. Shortly 
after his accession, he declared war against Charles XII., king 
of Sweden; but being defeated, he was dethroned, and through 
the influence of Charles, at the Diet of Warsaw, Stanislaus Mas 
elected to the throne in his place ; but after the defeat of the Swe- 
dish monarch at the battle ofFultowa, Augustus was again restored 

3. In 15S0, what did Philip IT. do? In 1040 what was done? In 1S07. by whom 
was Portugal invaded? What di-d the royal family do? In 1S23, what did Brazil do . 
in whose favor did Pedro resign his claim ? What followed ? 

1. What does the history orPoland exhibit? What did this prince do? What is 
said of Sobieski? Why was he elected? What did he maintain?— 2. Who was 
chosen to succeed him? What did he declare? What was the result? What hap- 
pened af'er the defeat of the Swedish monarch at the battle of Pultowa? 

9/2 



254 POLAND. 

to tne throne. The reign of his son Frederick Augustus II. was 
generally tranquil. 

3. In 1763, Stanislaus Augustus was elected king of Poland, 
through the influence of Catharine, empress of Russia. Civil 
commotions soon distracted the kingdom ; the malcontents were 
encouraged by the surrounding powers, who secretly increased 
the factions and difficulties in which the state was involved, in 
order that they might the more effectually accomplish its ruin. In 
1772 was perpetrated one of the most unjust and tyrannical acts 
recorded in history, namely, the dismemberment of Poland, by 
Russia, Prussia, and Austria. These three powers taking ad- 
vantage of the disorder and weakness of the kingdom, agreed to 
divide Poland between them. 

4. In the first division, Frederick seized upon Polish Prussia, 
and a part of great Poland ; Catharine received Polish Livonia 
and a part of Lithuania; while Galicia and Lodomeria, fell to the 
share of the emperor of Austria. After an ineffectual struggle, 
unhappy Poland was obliged to submit to this dismemberment 
and to sanction, by a legislative act, the injustice that these 
powers had committed against her. In 1791, a revolution took 
place in Poland; a new constitution was formed, in which the 
crown, which had hitherto been elective, was declared hereditary, 
a measure which met the entire approbation of the people. 

5. The empress of Russia, displeased with the new constitution, 
because it opposed her ambitious views, ordered her troops to in- 
vade the Polish dominions. The Poles flew to arms in defence 
of the rights and liberties of their country. They chose for theii 
general the brave and patriotic Kosciusko, who had borne a dis- 
tinguished part in the war of the revolution in the United States. 

For some time they withstood the united forces of their ene- 
mies ; but at length, overpowered by numbers, they were defeated, 
and the gallant Kosciusko was taken prisoner. Warsaw was 
taken and sacked by Suwarrow the Russian general, and nine 
thousand Poles perished in the defence of their capital. A new di- 
vision was now agreed on between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, 
which included a considerable part of the remaining portion of 
the Polish territory, A. D. 1793. 

6. Stanislaus, the last of the Polish monarchs, worn out with 
age and infirmity, was compelled to resign his crown at Grondo, 
where he died in captivity, during the year 1795. This event 
broke the spirit of the Poles ; a final division followed, by which 
the rapacious powers seized upon the remaining parts of the 
country. Thus ill-fated Poland, by acts of the vilest tyranny, has 
been blotted out from the list of nations. During the reign of 
Nicholas, the present emperor, an ineffectual struggle was made 
by the Poles to regain the liberty of their country. Though over- 
powered by the numbers of the Russian army, they failed in this 

3. In 1763, who was elected ? What followed ? /n 1772, what .was perpetrated ?~ 
4. How were the divisions made? What was Poland obliged to do? In 1791, what 
took place?— 5. What is said of the empress of Russia ? Of the Poles? Whom did they 
choose for their general? What is said of Warsaw? What was now agreed on? 
—G. What is said of Stanislaus? What followed? During the reign of Nicholas wljal 
was made ? What did their courage prove ? 



Russia. 255 

struggle; still the courage and valor displayed by the patriots, 
proved to the world that the spirit of their freedom only slumbers 
and awaits a favorable opportunity to arise from that slumber and 
shake oft' the fetters that bind it. 



RUSSIA. 

1. The early history of Russia, which is greatly involved in 
obscurity, is marked by few events of importance. In the fif- 
teenth century, John Basilowitz recovered the country from the 
dominion of the Tartars, and united a great part of it into one 
monarchy. ^ But civilization made but little progress in Russia, 
until the reign of Peter the Great, who ascended the throne in 
1689, and assumed the title of emperor. To this illustrious mon- 
arch Russia is indebted for all her present greatness. His youth 
was spent in dissipation, and his education was much neglected ; 
but on ascending the throne, he displayed talents and abilities 
that have ranked him among the greatest of the sovereigns ot 
Europe. 

2. Peter's first military expedition w r as against the Turks, 
whom he signally defeated, and returning to Moscow after the 
capture of Azof, he caused the first medals to be struck that were 
ever seen in Russia. In order to improve and polish the manners 
of his court, he sent a number of his young nobility to travel, and 
to acquire a knowledge of foreign countries. After this he re- 
solved to go himself and visit the various states of Europe, in 
order to profit by his own personal experience and observations. 
In the capacity of a private, in the attendance of one of the no- 
bles of his court, he travelled through Germany to Holland. At 
Amsterdam he engaged himself as a workman in the dock-yard, 
under the name of Peter Michaehff. From Holland he passed 
into England, where he was similarly employed, and where he 
gained still higher improvement. At the end of sixteen months, 
he returned to his own dominions, carrying with him the fruit of 
his experience, which he successfully employed for the benefit of 
his subjects. 

3. In 1711, Peter married Catharine, a young and beautiful 
girl, the daughter of a peasant of Ringen, a small village in Li- 
vonia. At this period, Charles XII., king of Sweden, the most 
renowned warrior of his age, who had astonished all Europe by 
the brilliancy of his conquests, invaded Russia at the head of a 
powerful army. Without the loss of time, Peter hastened to op- 
pose his progress. They met in the famous battle of Pultoiva, in 

1. What is said of the early history? In the fifteenth century ? What is said of ci 
vilization? How was his youth spent?— 2. What was his first military expedition? 
To improve the manners of his court, what did he do? After this, what did he resolve? 
How did he travel? Where was he employed? When did he return to his own do- 
minions ' — y. Whom did Peter marry ? Wha: is said of Charles XII. ? Where did they 
meet? 



256 eussia. 

which the Swedish monarch was signally defeated, with the loss 
of nine thousand of his army killed, and fourteen thousand taken 
prisoners. The other principal events of his reign were the de- 
struction of the Sterlityes, a body of troops resembling the Turkish 
Janizaries ; the building of the city of St. Petersburg, and the 
institution of a numerous and powerful army. He died in 1725, 
not without some suspicions of being poisoned by the empress. 

4. Peter, as a sovereign, was unquestionably great; but as a 
roan, he possessed many qualities that degraded his private cha- 
racter : he is said to have been cruel, passionate, and given to 
intemperance. 

The empress, having ascended the throne under the title of 
Catharine I., was succeeded, after a prosperous reign of two 
years, by Peter II., grandson of Peter I. After a short and 
peaceful reign, he left the throne to his niece, Anne, Duchess ot 
Courland. Her reign was prosperous, and added to the strength 
of the empire. Her generals gained several important victories 
over the Turks, and conquered several towns in Crim Tartary 
On her death, John, an infant only a few months old, succeeded 
to the throne; but, by a sudden revolution, the young prince was 
deposed, and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was pro 
claimed empress. 

5. Her reign was more brilliant than any of her predecessors, 
with the exception of her father. She was a princess possessed 
of eminent abilities and political talents. Her army was com- 
pletely victorious over the Swedes, and her alliance was courted 
by Great Britain. 

Elizabeth was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., a weak 
and indolent prince. He had married Catharine of Anhalt, a 
German princess, who having discovered that it was his intention 
to confine her for life, and to marry a lady of his court, entered 
into a conspiracy with her favorite, Count of Orloff, against her 
husband, who was accordingly deposed, and afterwards assas- 
sinated. 

6. Catharine was immediately proclaimed empress, under the 
title of Catharine II. Her reign was the most magnificent in the 
history of Russia. She introduced elegance and refinement into 
her empire ; encouraged the arts and manufactures ; enlarged her 
dominions, by extending her conquests over Poland, Crimea, and 
other territories. As an empress, she possessed extraordinary 
talents for government; but her total disregard for justice in her 
conduct towards defenceless Poland, has stamped an indelible 
stain upon her public character, while her private life was a dis- 
grace to her sex. She was succeeded by her son Paid, whose 
6hort and tyrannical reign was terminated by assassination, 
A. D. 1801. 

7. Alexander I., his eldest son, who now succeeded to the 

What were the other principal events of his reign ? When did he die! — 4. What is 
eaid of Peter? By whom was the empress succeeded? To whom did he leave the 
throne? What was her reign? To whom did she. leave the throne ? What revolu- 
tion took place ? — 5. What is said of her reign ? By whom was she succeeded? Whom 
did he marry ? "What is related of her ?— 6. What was Catharine proclaimed? What 
did she do? Whit did she possess ? By whom was she succeeded?— 7. Who nexl 
succeeded to the throne ? 



Prussia. 257 

throne, was a wise and popular sovereign. During his reign, the 
power of Russia was extended, and public improvement promoted. 
Alexander, alarmed at the progress of Napoleon, joined with 
Austria against him. But after many sanguinary battles, the Rus- 
sian monarch was compelled to sign the peace of Tilsit. In 1812, 
upon the refusal of Alexander to concur in the scheme of the 
Emperor of France, for excluding the British commerce from the 
continent of Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia at the head of a 
powerful army. At Borodino, near Moscow, one of the most 
terrible battles was fought recorded in history. When the French 
emperor made his disastrous retreat from Moscow, Alexander 
pursued the enemy beyond the limits of his empire, and entered 
Paris with the other allied sovereigns, where Napoleon was de- 
throned. 

8. Alexander died in 1825, and was succeeded by his brother, 
Nicholas I., whose reign has been distinguished by the successful 
termination of a war carried on against the Turks and Persians. 
His character has been deeply stained by his cruelty and tyranni- 
cal measures towards the Poles. 



PRUSSIA. 

1. Little is known of the early history of this country. It 
was inhabited by a rude and barbarous race, called the fiorussi, 
and denominated Brussia or Porussia, from which the present 
name is derived. In 1594, Prussia and Brandenburg were united 
into one government, by a matrimonial alliance between John 
Sip;ismond, Elector of Brandenburg, and Anne, the daughter of 
Albert, Duke of Prussia. On the death of Sigismond, in 1619, 
his son, the elector, George William, succeeded to the govern- 
ment. During his administration, the electorate suffered the 
severest calamities, occasioned by the Thirty Years' War, which 
grew out of the religious controversies which at that time dis- 
tracted the continent of Europe. 

2. On the death of George, in 1640, his son, Frederick Wil- 
liam, succeeded to his dominions. By a wise and well regulated 
policy, he succeeded in removing the disorders into which the 
country had fallen, in consequence of the wars that continued to 
rage during the reign of his father, and at his death he left the 
electorate in a prosperous condition. He was succeeded by 
Frederick I., who assumed the title of king in 1701 ; as previous 
to this period the country was styled the Electorate of Branden- 
burg, and the ruler the Elector. 

In 1812, what took place? At Borodino, what took place? When the emperor mad© 
his retreat, what did Alexander do ? — S. When did he die, and by whom succeeded ? 
By what is his character stained ? 

1. What is said of the history, and by whom was it inhabited ? In 1594, what took 
vdace? AVho succeeded Sigismond in 1619? — 2. By whom was George succeeded? 
What did he succeed in removing? By whom was he succeeded, and what did ho 
assume ? 

22* 



258 Prussia. 

Frederick was remarkable for his economy ana frugality, and 
even denied himself the ordinary comforts of life; in his manners 
he was rude and harsh, and treated his children with a degree of 
severity bordering on brutality. 

3. Frederick II., styled the Great, who succeeded to the throne 
in 1740, is regarded as one of the greatest warriors of modern 
times. Shortly after his accession, he revived his claim to the 
duchy of Silesia, invaded the country, and defeated the Austrians 
in the great battle of Mohvitz. After the conquest of Silesia, he 
turned his victorious arms against Saxony. Having alarmed all 
Europe by the rapidity of his conquests, a defensive alliance was 
formed against him by France, Russia, and Austria. A great 
and sanguinary contest ensued, called the Seven Years' TFar, 
during which Frederick maintained his ground against his power- 
ful enemies, until peace was restored by the treaty of Hubertsberg. 

4. Frederick was remarkable for the severe discipline which 
he maintained in his army. On one occasion, while in sight of 
the enemy, he gave orders that all the lights in the camp should 
be put out at a certain hour, under the penalty of death. It hap- 
pened as he went round the camp to see if his order was obeyed, 
that he perceived the glimmering of a light proceeding from the 
tent of one of his officers. As the king entered the tent, the 
officer, who was in the act of folding a letter, immediately arose 
and threw himself at the feet of Frederick, and implored his for- 
giveness for having disobeyed his order, stating at the same time 
that he had been writing a few lines to his wife, and on that ac- 
count had retained the light for a few moments over the time 
appointed for extinguishing it. The king, with a stern counte- 
nance, ordered him to add a few words more to the letter he had 
just concluded, and to inform his wife that he would be shot on 
the following day; this rigorous sentence was accordingly 
executed. 

5. In the latter part of his reign, Frederick applied himself to 
the internal improvement of his kingdom ; he built several towns, 
and gave encouragement to agriculture, manufactures, and com 
merce. He was fond of literature, and possessed some merits as 
an author. In religion, he was a skeptic, and made Voltaire an 
intimate companion. The part he acted in the dismemberment 
of Poland has proved him destitute of every principle of justice or 
humanity. 

6. He died in 1786, at the advanced age of seventy-four years, 
and was succeeded by Frederick William II., a prince more ad- 
dicted to pleasure than to the affairs of government. After a short 
and unimportant reign, he was succeeded by his son, Frederick 
William III., in 1797. Frederick suffered a memorable defeat 
in his contest with the French, under Napoleon, at the battle of 
Jena; and at the peace of Tilsit he was deprived of nearly half 

What is said of Frederick ?— 3. "What is said of Frederick II.? On his accession, 
vhat did he do ? What was formed against him ? What ensued? — 4. For what waa 
Frederick remarkable? On one occasion, what orders did he give? Relate what 
followed. — 5. In the latter part of his reign, to what did he apply himself? What waa 
be in religion, and who was his companion ?— 6. When did he die ? Who succeeded 
Ui 179? ? What defeat did ho suffer ? In 1S12, what did the Prussian monarch do f 



GERMANY. 259 

of his dominions. In 1312, the Prussian monarch joined the 
coalition against France, and his army, under Blvchcr, at the 
famous battle of Waterloo 
the Emperor Napoleon. 

considerable accession of territory. Nothing of importance has, 
since that period, transpired in Prussia. Of late years, Frederick 
has bestowed much of his attention towards promoting the arts of 
peace, and the intellectual improvement of his people. 



, turned the fortune of the day against 
By the treaty of Vienna, he gained a 



GERMANY. 

1. Our knowledge of the primitive inhabitants of Germany, 
who were most probably of Celtic origin, is very limited, until 
the period of the Roman conquests in that country. At the time 
when Julius Caesar invaded the country, Germany seems to have 
been divided into a number of independent principalities ; but the 
inhabitants frequently united for their mutual defence, and the 
many bloody battles they fought before they sunk under the power 
of the invaders, established their reputation for bravery. On the 
decline of the Western Empire ot the Romans, Germany fell 
under the dominion of the Franks, and remained in their posses- 
sion until Charlemagne extended his power over the whole 
country. 

2. In the year 843, the Empire of the West was divided into 
three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; and about the 
year 887, the imperial dignity was transferred entirely to Ger- 
many, which, in the history of Europe, is called, by way of dis- 
tinction, the Empire, and the subjects, the Imperialists. After 
the death of Louis III., in 912, the empire became strictly elective, 
although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of the 
bishops and nobility had always been asked. Conrad was the first 
elected to the vacant throne, and after a reign of seven years, 
Henry /., surnamed the Fowler, was raised to the imperial dig- 
nity. Henry possessed great abilities, and introduced good order 
into his dominions; he built and embellished several cities, re- 
duced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, subdued the 
Hungarians, Danes, Bohemians, &c, and added Lorraine to his 
empire. 

3. His son, Otho I., was elected emperor in 936. He possessed 
all the abilities of his father, and pursued a similar systemof 
policy. In 961, he invaded Italy, at the solicitation of the Italian 
states, during their contest with Berenger. Otho defeated Be- 
renger and Adalbert, caused himself to be crowned at Milan as 
Emperor of the Romans. He died in 972, after an active reign 
of thirty years. Otho II. succeeded his father in 973, during 

1 What is our knowledge of the inhabitants ? In the time of Julius Cfesar, how 
were they divided ? On the decline of the Western Empire, what was the f-ite of the 
Germans ?— 2. In S43, what took place ? And in S87 ? And in 912 ? What is said cl 
Henry I.? — 3. Who was nest elected ? In 961, what did he do ? When drlhe die? 
Who succeeded ? 



260 GERMANY. 

whose reign nothing of importance occuned. The reigns of lu<j 
successors, Otho III., Henry II., Conrad II., and Henry III, 
are marked by few striking events. Towards the close of the 
reign of Henry II., usually called St. Henry, the pious monarch 
wished to renounce all earthly grandeur, and applied to Richard, 
abbot of St. Viennes, in Lorraine, for admission into the monas- 
tery. The abbot received him, but immediately commanded him. 
in virtue of a vow of obedience, to reassume the government of 
the empire, for the honor of God and the good of his people, to 
which the monarch humbly, though reluctantly, submitted. 

4. Henry IV., surnamed the Great, succeeded to the throne in 
1058, at the early age of six years. His reign is chiefly distin- 
guished by his contests with the popes, the particulars of which 
may be seen under the head of Italy. The latter part of his life 
was imbittered by the unnatural rebellion of his own son, who 
openly revolted, and obliged him to abdicate the crown. The de- 
throned monarch was removed to Liege, where he shortly after 
died, a prey to excessive grief, A. D. 1106, after a reign of fifty 
years, during which he had been present in sixty-two battles, in 
most of which he was victorious. His exploits, his bravery, and 
talents, have ranked him among the greatest sovereigns of Ger- 
many. 

5. Nothing of importance occurred in the history of Germany 
during the reigns of several succeeding emperors. The reign oi - 
Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa, on account of his red beard» 
was chiefly signalized by an expedition to the Holy Land, during 
which he was drowned in the river Cydnus, in Cilicia. After the 
reign of Conrad IV., a period of near twenty years of contention 
and confusion followed, called the Great Interregnum; the dis- 
order was terminated by the election of Rodolphus, count of 
Hapsburg, in Switzerland, to the imperial throne, A. D. 1264. 
The new emperor found the country in a state of anarchy and 
confusion, but by his wise and prudent measures, he succeeded in 
restoring order; his reign was distinguished by many acts of 
virtue and justice. He left one son, from whom the present house 
of Austria is descended, who afterwards succeeded to the throne, 
under the title of Albert I., in 1298. 

6. In the reign of this prince, the Swiss revolted; at first only 
a few of the cantons combined to assert their freedom, and a 
small army of thirteen hundred Swiss defeated an immense 
host of Austrians, in the pass of Margate, in 1315. The rest of 
the cantons by degrees joined the revolt, and with invincible per- 
severance, after sixty sanguinary battles with their enemies, they 
effected their independence. This event was chiefly effected by 
the patriotism of the famous William. Tell, who was instrumental 
in producing this revolution, and in laying the foundation of his 
country's freedom. [_See his Life in Biography.] 

What is related of Henry II. ? — 4. Who succeeded in 1056 ? For what is his reign 
distinguished ? What was the latter part of his life ? When did he die ? — 5. For, whaj 
was the reign of Frederick I. signalized? What happened after the reign of Conrad 
IV. ? How was the disorder terminated? What is said of ihe new emperor ? Wi3 
did he leave? — G. What took place in the reign of the prince ? Wlwre was the Au3 
trisn army defeated T By whom was this event effected ? 



GERMANY 261 

7. The reigns of the eight succeeding emperors present few 
events oi importance. The reign of Henry VII., however, waa 
memorable for the miseries under which Germany groaned during 
that period ; a raging pestilence and famine depopulated the towns 
and desolated the provinces. The rich sought an asylum in other 
countries, while the poor perished for the want of assistance. 
Wolves and other beasts of prey, impelled by hunger, quitted the 
forest, and rushing into the towns, devoured the famished inhabit- 
ants ; cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains, swept 
trees and houses before them with violent impetuosity, while the 
earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate 
it to the very centre. 

8. Frederick III. succeeded to the throne in 1440. His family 
became the most powerful in Germany, by the marriage of his 
son with Mary, the heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. 
He was succeeded by his son, Maximilian I., a prince possessed 
of considerable abilities. He established peace among the Ger- 
man states, and freed the country from the disorders occasioned 
oy the feudal system. Maximilian was succeeded, in 1519, by 
his grandson, Charles V., the most powerful sovereign of his age. 
His long reign, which continued for nearly forty years, was almost 
one series of warfare, chiefly with his great rival, Francis I., of 
France. During this contest, in 1527, Charles took Rome, which, 
for nine months, was given up to plunder. A few years after this 
event, he took the city of Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thou- 
sand Christian slaves. A few years before his death, he resigned 
the crown of Spain to his son, Philip II., and leaving the throne 
of Germany to his brother Ferdinand, he retired to the monastery 
of St. Justin, in Spain ; here in this peaceful retreat, the greatest 
monarch of the age ended his days. The Reformation, which be- 
gan to make considerable progress in Germany, is one of the most 
remarkable events in the history of that empire. It was first com- 
menced by Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, who was then 
professor of divinity at Wittenberg, about the year 1517. [For 
particulars, see Christian Church.1 

9. The reigns of the successors of Ferdinand, Maximilian II. 
and Bodolphus II., were generally peaceful and prosperous. The 
reigns of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. were signalized by 
the Thirty Years' War, which commenced in the year 1618, ancl 
was terminated by the peace of Westphalia, in 1648. This cele- 
brated war had its origin in the religious dissensions of the six- 
teenth century; on the one side was the Protestant confederacy, 
styled the Evangelical Union, and on the other, the Catholic 
League. The final result of the contest was the equal establish- 
ment of the Protestant and Catholic religions. 

10. By the death of Charles VI., in 1740, the male line of the 
house of Hapsburg became extinct ; his eldest daughter, the cele 

7. For what is the reign of Henry VII. memorable ? What is said of the rich? Of 
woives ? Of cataracts of water ?— S. Who succeeded to tie throne? By whom wa? 
Maximilian succeeded ? What is said of his reign ? What cities did he take? Beforo 
his death, what did he do? What is one of the most -emarkable events in the history 
of IhiS empire? — 9. By what were the reigns of Ferdinand the first and second sig- 
nalled ? In what had this war its or g:r. ? What was on the one side ? On the other t 



262 SWEDEN. 

brated Maria Theresa, succeeded to his dominions. Her title, 
however, was disputed by Charles the Elector of Bavaria ; this cir- 
cumstance cave rise to the contest styled the war of the Austrian 
Success)/ 'i which was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Ckapelle, 
in 1748. when the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged, and 
her husband, Francis of Lorraine, was invested with the imperial 
dignity. The empress was distinguished for her heroism, eminent 
talents, and affability. She built various hospitals, and encouraged 
commerce and science. 

i I. Maria Theresa was succeeded by her son, Joseph II, in the 
year 176."). The reign of this prince was signalized by his war 
with the Turks, during which he died, and was succeeded by 
hi- brother, Leopold II., who, after a short reign of two years, left 
the throne to Francis II. Germany, during the French Revolu- 
tion, became the theatre of most of the wars carried on at 
that period. In 1804, Francis caused himself to be proclaimed 
hereditary emperor of Austria, and two years subsequent to this 
event, he was compelled by Napoleon, the Emperor of France, to 
resign the title of Emperor of Germany, and absolve the German 
states from their allegiance. Thus ended the German Empire, 
after it had continued from the commencement of the Western 
Empire, under Charlemagne, a period of one thousand and six years. 
On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Austria joined the filth 
coaliiion against him, and after the second dethronement of the 
emperor, a new union was formed by the German states, called the 
Germanic Confederation. It was subsequently signed at Vienna, 
and the several states were reinstated by Austria, in nearly their 
former possessions. 



SWEDEN". 

1. The early history of Sweden is obscure and unimportant. To- 
gether with Norway, it formed a part of ancient Scandinavia, and 
was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a race of German origin. In 
the latter part of the fourteenth century, Sweden, Denmark, and 
Norway were united into one kingdom by Margaret of Sweden, 
who has been styled the Semiramis of the North. During the 
reign of Christian II, king of Denmark, a revolution took place, 
by which the Swedes were delivered from the Danish yoke, and 
Gustavus Vasa, a descendant of the ancient kings was raised 

10. On the death of Charles VI., who succeeded ? By whom was her title succeeded ? 
To what did this give rise? What is said of the empress? — 11. By whom was Maria 
succeeded? By what was his reign signalized? By whom was he succeeded? To 
whom did Leopold leave the throne? In 1804. what did Francis do ? What was he 
compelled to do by Napoleon ? How long had the German Empire lasted 1 After the 
second dethronement of the emperor, what was formed? 

1. What is said of the early history? In the fourteenth eentury, what was dona? 
During the reign of Christian, what took place ? 



SWEDEN. 263 

to the throne of Sweden. He was an able sovereign, and admi- 
nistered the government with advantage to his subjects. 

2. Gustavus Adolphus, one of the greatest of the Swedish mo- 
narchs, succeeded to the throne in 1611. He was eminent as a 
statesman, and is ranked among the greatest generals of his age, 
He was successful in his war against Denmark, Russia, and Po- 
land. In a war with the Imperialists, he defeated them in the 
battle of Leipsic in 1632; and again in that of Lutzen, in which 
he lost his life. He was succeeded by his daughter Christiana, 
who governed Sweden with much prudence and wisdom until the 
year 1654, when she resigned her crown to her cousin Charles 
Gustavus, left her country, and devoted the remainder of her 
clays in the pursuit of science and literature, first at Paris, and 
iinally at Rome, where she died, having previously embraced the 
Catholic religion. 

3. Charles XII. ascended the throne of Sweden in 1697, at the 
age of fifteen years. Shortly after his accession, he found his 
kingdom attacked in three different quarters, by Russia, Den- 
mark, and Poland. With a courage and resolution not to be 
expected from a youth of seventeen, Charles successively took 
the field against these powers, and signally defeated their forces. 
One of the most memorable victories recorded in history he 
obtained at Varna, where, with only eight thousand men, he 
defeated the Russian army of eighty thousand, of whom thirty 
thousand were taken prisoners. 

4. Having reduced Courland and Lithuania, he entered Poland 
and took Warsaw and Cracow. A negotiation having been pro- 

. posed on the part of Russia, Charles abruptly replied that he 
would treat at Moscow, then the capital of the Russian empire. 
Accordingly, in the midst of a severe winter he invaded Russia, 
and advanced with his army as far as Pidtoiva, where he was 
met by his great rival Peter the Great. A tremendous battle 
ensued, in which the Swedish monarch suffered a most disastrous 
defeat. After this Charles lied with the remainder of his forces 
into Turkey, where he displayed the conduct of a maniac rather 
than that of a wise and prudent prince. Being ordered to leave 
Turkey he refused to comply, and proceeded to fortify his camp. 
With only three thousand men he defended himself some time 
against twenty thousand Turks, and only yielded when he wa3 
taken by the arm and led forcibly to the tent of the Bashaw. 

5. Having at length returned from Turkey, he resolved upon 
the conquest of Norway. Accordingly, at the head of his army, 
he invaded that country in the month of October, and with eigh- 
teen thousand men laid siege to Frederickshalle. On the 1 1th 
of December, as he visited the trenches for the purpose of encou- 
raging and animating his men, he stood with his arm resting upon 

2 What is said of Gustavus? Where did he lose his ./fe? By whom was ha suc- 
ceeded? In 1632, whut did she do?— 3. Who ascended the throne in 1697? After his 
accession, what did he find? What memorable victory did he obtain?— 4. Having 
reduced Courland, what did he do? Wlien did he invade Russia? Where, and by 
whom was he met? After this, where did Charles Tetire? Being ordered to leave 
Turkey, what did he do ?— 5. "What did he resolve ? At what season did he invade the 
country? On the llth of December, what did he do ? 



264 DENMARK. 

the parapet, while the enemy poured a shower of balls upon tne 
spot where he stood. In this exposed situation he remained for 
some time, apparently unconscious of his danger; at length he was 
struck by a cannon ball in the temple, and fell with a groan against 
the parapet. While in the act of falling, he grasped with his 
right hand the hilt of his sword as if to avenge the blow, a fact 
which forcibly displayed the characteristic of his mind. 

6. On the death of Charles, in 1718, Sweden enjoyed compara- 
tive repose under the reign of his sister Ulrica, and also under 
that of her husband the prince of Hesse, to whom she resigned 
her crown. On his death, Jldolphus Frederick was elected to the 
throne. His reign was somewhat disturbed by the factions of the 
senate. In 1771, Gustavus HI. having succeeded to the throne, 
deprived the senate of their power and rendered himself absolute,* 
he made, however, a moderate use of his power, and the rest of 
his reign was passed in tranquillity; he was assassinated while 
attending a masquerade ball in 1792. 

7. Jldolphus was succeeded by his son Gustavus IV., under 
the regency of the Duke of Sudermania. After a weak and 
extravagant reign he was dethroned, and the crown was trans- 
ferred to the Duke of Sudermania, who assumed the title of 
Charles XIII., A. D. 1809. But the king having no children, 
Bernadotte, a favorite general of Napoleon, was, through the em- 
peror's influence, declared Crown Prince, and obtained the right 
of succession, and on the death of Charles quietly succeeded to 
the throne, A. D. 1818. He is regarded as a wise prince, anxious 
to promote the happiness of his subjects. Previous to the acces- 
sion of Bernadotte, Norway was taken from Denmark and an- 
nexed to Sweden. 



DENMARK. 

1. The history of Denmark begins to emerge from obscurity 
during the reign of Waldemar Z, who obtained the throne in 
1157, after ten years' contest with his competitor. He laid the 
foundation of the city of Dantzic and subdued the Courlanders 
In 1387, Queen Margaret, a woman of extraordinary ability, 
ascended the Danish throne. She united Sweden, Norway, ana 
Denmark in one kingdom, and governed them with much pru- 
dence and wisdom. In 1448, Christian, count of Aldenberg, 
from whom the present royal family are descended, succeeded to 
the throne. 

2. The government was originally elective, and continued so 
until the year 16G0, during the reign of Frederick III., when, b$? 

In the act of falling, what did he do? — 6. On the death of Charles, what is said of 
Sweden? In 1771, who succeeded? Of what did he deprive the senate? How di 
he die ? — 7. To whom was the crown transferred ? Through the emperor's influence 
who was declared Crown Prince, and when did he ascend the throne? 

1. When does the history of Denmark begin to emerge from obscurity? In 1337, 
who ascended the throne? In 1443, who succeeded? — 2. What is said of the gcveru 
stent? 



NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND. 265 

the voice of the people, it was changed into a hereditary and ab- 
solute monarchy. During the reign of Frederick IV., Denmark 
waged a successful war against Charles XII. of Sweden, which 
terminated shortly after the death of that monarch, by the peace 
of Stockholm. During the reign of Christian VI. and Frederick 
V., the kingdom remained in a peaceful and prosperous condi- 
tion. Christian VII., a weak and dissolute prince, having as- 
cended the throne in 1766, married Caroline i Matilda, sister to 
George III. of England. This unfortunate princess having been 
accused of harboring hostile designs against the government, in 
conjunction with counts Brandt and Struensee, was arrested and 
sent to the castle of Bronenburg, with her infant daughter. The 
two unfortunate noblemen were immediately executed ; Matilda, 
however, was removed to Zell in Hanover, where she died at the 
age of twenty-three years. 

3. Frederick VI. succeeded his father to the throne in 1808 
During the first year of his reign, at a time when the country was 
at peace, the British fleet under Lord Cathcart and Mmirai 
Gambier, bombarded the city of Copenhagen under the pretense 
that information had been received that Denmark intended to 
throw itself in favor of France. The Danish fleet, consisting of 
eighteen ships of the line and sixteen frigates, were destroyed by 
the British. 



NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND. 

1. The territories comprising the Netherlands and Hollar.d 
formerly embraced a great part of ancient Batavia. At an early 
period of their history they were divided into various small states, 
and governed by counts or earls. They were united to Germany 
subsequent to the reign of Charlemagne, but regained their inde- 
pendence in the tenth century. In 1443 they became subject to 
Burgundy, at which time they began to excite the attention of 
Europe for their extensive manufactures and commerce. They 
were ao-ain transferred to the house of Austria by the emperor 
Maximilian. 

2. In 1555 they were resigned by Charles V. to his son Philip 
II. of Spain, from whom they revolted and established their inde- 
pendence, under the title of the Seven United Provinces of Hol- 
land. Spain still retained possession of several smaller provinces 
until the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, when they were ceded to 
Austria. In 1795 the United Provinces were overrun and con- 
quered by the French, on which occasion the Stadtholder and his 

During the reign of Frederick IV., what is said ot JJenmark? What is eaid of Chris- 
linn VII. ? What is related of this unfortunate princess '—3. When did Frederick VI 
succeed? During his reign what took place? 

1. What did these territories formerly comprise? W"hen were they united to the 
German empire ? In 1443, what took place ?— 2. In 1555, to whom were they resigned 
In 1V95. what is said of them? Into what were they erected by the cong:es6 of Viezj- 
sa? W T hat is he styled ? 

23 



266 ITALY. 

family fled for protection to England. After remaining for some 
time united to the French empire, they were erected, by the con- 
gress of Vienna, into a kingdom, under the government of the 
Prince of Orange, who is styied the king of the Netherlands and 
Duke of Luxemburg. 



TTALY. 

1. After the downfall of the Roman empire of the West, in 
476, the Heruli overran Italy and conquered the country. But 
their kingdom was of short duration. After the short space of 
thirteen years, Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern 
Goths, invaded Italy, defeated and slew Odoacer, the king of the 
Heruli, and usurped his dominions, A. D. 493. 

Theodoric, commonly called the Great, fixed his residence at 
Ravenna ; he was an Arian in principle, but tolerated his Catho- 
lic subjects; his administration of the government showed him 
to have been a prince of great abilities. He died after a reign of 
thirty-three years. 

2. Italy was wrested from the power of the Goths about the 
middle of the sixth century, by Belisarius and Narses, the gene- 
rals of Justinian, and again annexed to the empire of Constanti 
nople. It next fell into the hands of the Lombards. Alboinus, 
the Lombard king, invaded Italy, and was proclaimed king of 
the country about the year 568. Their sovereignty in Italy 
lasted for about two hundred and six years, under the reigns of 
twenty-two successive kings. 

3. About the year 774, Desiderous, or Didier, king of the 
Lombards, took Ravenna, and carried his victorious arms to the 
walls of Rome. In this emergency, Pope Stephen sent to implore 
assistance from Constantine, the Greek emperor, in whose name 
the government of Rome was still exercised. But the emperor 
was at that time too much engaged in religious disputes, to think 
of sending his troops against the Lombards. In this extremity, 
the Romans embraced the last resource which was left them, that 
of calling to their assistance Pepin, the monarch of France. Pepin 
readily accepted the invitation; but before any act of hostility, 
deputies were sent to Astolphus, the king of the Lombards, to re- 
quest that he would renounce his ambitious views. The fierce 
Lombard only answered the deputies with threats and insults. 

4. Pepin immediately crossed the Alps and marched his army 
into Italy, defeated the Lombards, and compelled them to con- 
clude a treaty of peace on terms offered by the conqueror. Scarce- 
ly had the French king departed, when the perfidious Lombard 

1. When and by whom was Italy conquered? What did Theodoric do? Where 
did ) e fix his residence? "What was he ? — 2. By whom was Italy wrested from tha 
Goths? Into whose hands did it next fall? W 7 ho invaded the country? How lonf» 
did their kingdom last?— -3. In 774, what took place ? What did Pope Stephen ? Wlia'. 
s said of the emperor ? Whom did the Romans now call to thsir assistance? Wliitt 
was done first? — 4. What did Pepin immediately do? 



ITALY. 267 

recommenced hostilities, and laid siege to Rome Pope Stephen 
had recourse again to his royal protector, and Pepin again crossed 
the Alps, and obliged Astolphus to accede to a second and more 
humiliating treaty. The French monarch, before he returned to 
his own dominions, made a solemn grant of his conquered terri- 
tories in Italy to Pope Stephen, and his successors in the pontifical 
chair, thus raising the head of the Christian church to the dignity 
of a temporal sovereign, A. D. 755. The territories thus bestowed, 
were called the Ecclesiastical States, and have, to the present 
time, composed the temporal dominion of the popes. This grant 
was afterwards confirmed by Charlemagne, the successor of Pe- 
pin, who completely destroyed the Lombard kingdom in Italy, 
after it had lasted for two hundred and six years, A. D. 774. _ 

5. The principal states into which Italy is divided, are Venice, 
Florence, Naples, Sicily, the Ecclesiastical States, Parma, and a 
few others. The republic of Venice first grew into notice during 
the ninth century. The Venetians were for a considerable 
time the most commercial people of Europe. Florence became a 
republic in the thirteenth century, and maintained its indepen- 
dence for upwards of two hundred years. Genoa became a repub- 
lic in 953, and was long distinguished for its commerce. The 
little republic of San Marino is distinguished for its great anti- 
quity, and for the purity of its republican principles. It is under 
the immediate protection of the pope, and occupies a tract of only 
forty square miles, with a population of seven thousand inhabit- 
ants; it has retained its independence for more than thirteen 
hundred years, and so jealous of its liberties, that the laws require 
the magistrates to be semi-annually elected. 

6. During the pontificate of Gregory VII. , a serious altercation 
took place between the pope and Henry IV., emperor of Germa- 
ny. It seems that it had been the custom in various countries, 
for the emperors to put the newly elected bishops and abbots in 
possession of their benefices, by giving them the ring and the 
crosier, the symbols of their pastoral authority. But as this 
ceremony, called investiture, seemed to apply the conferring of 
spiritual jurisdiction by temporal princes, it was considered as an 
encroachment on the rights of the church. The emperor, Hen- 
ry, however, besides exercising this privilege, carried on a shame- 
ful traffic in ecclesiastical dignities, bestowing them not on the most 
worthy, but on those who offered him the largest sums of money. 
Against these abuses, Pope Gregory loudly declaimed ; but his 
entreaties and expostulations were disregarded. Henry, instead 
of reforming his conduct, convened an assembly at Worms, in 
which, with the aid of a body of schismatical associates, he pre- 
sumed to pass sentence of deposition against the pontiff*, A. D. 
1 076. 

After his departure, whai was done by the Lombards? What did Pepin again dol? 
Before his return, what grant did he make ? What are these territories called? Whit 
w,)s done by Charlemagne? — 5. What are the principal states of Italy ? What is said 
of the Venetians? Of Florence? Of Genoa? For what is San Marino distinguished 1 
tinder whose protection? How long has it maintained its independence? 6. During 
fee pontificate of Gregory II. what took place? What had been a custom in various 
countries? What w*s this ceremony called ? What was cone at the assembly at 
VVortr.s 7 



268 ITALY. 

7. Upon receiving intelligence of this outrageous act, Gregory 
proceeded to put into execution the fullest extent of his power 
With the advice of a numerous council, taking into consideration 
the obduracy of Henry, and the repeated complaints of his op- 
pressed subjects, he excommunicated him, and pronounced the mo- 
narch fallen from his royal dignity -, and at the same time declared 
the Germans no longer bound by their former oath of allegiance 
to him. Singular as this power may appear, which Gregory ex- 
ercised on that occasion, still it was admitted by his contempo- 
raries, that such power lay within the sphere of the papal juris- 
diction, and it was supported by the civil and common jurispru- 
dence of that period. This doctrine, although hostile to the inde- 
pendence of sovereigns, was often supported by the sovereign^ 
themselves. Thus, when Richard I. of England was detained a 
prisoner in Germany, his mother Eleanor repeatedly solicited the 
pontiff to procure his liberation by the exercise of that authority 
which he possessed over temporal princes. Again John, the suc- 
cessor of Richard, invoked the aid of the same authority to re- 
cover Normandy from the French king. At what particular pe- 
riod the popes began to exercise this power, does not appear; 
nor is it exactly certain what the particular circumstances were 
which gave rise to it. 

9. At first they only exercised their spiritual censures ; but in 
an age when all ideas of justice were modelled after the feudal 
jurisprudence, it was soon admitted that princes, by their disobedi- 
ence to the spiritual power of the church, had violated the oath of 
their coronation, and become traitors to God ; and as such they 
had forfeited their kingdoms; and in the case of Henry IV., we 
hear the Germans expressly declare that they had sworn fealty to 
him on condition that he should reign for the edification, and 
not for the destruction of the church, and were he to infringe this 
duty, they would think themselves no longer bound by their oath, 
of allegiance to him. (See Schlegel, Philos. II, page 137 J 

To pronounce the sentence by which they were freed from the 
allegiance, was thought to belong exclusively to the sovereign 
pontiff, who was regarded as the head of the church. 

9. At the news of the sentence pronounced by Pope Gregory 
VII., the princes of Germany assembled in order to appoint 
another emperor in the place of Henry. The distressed monarch 
seeing that there was no other way left of averting the storm that 
he had occasioned, than by becoming reconciled to the see of 
Rome, departed for Itaiy, determined to effect his reconcilia- 
tion on any terms. Gregory had left Rome, and advanced as far 
as Canosse, on his way to Germany ; here Henry met him in a 
penitential garb, presented himself at the gates of the castle, and 
humbly begged to be admitted into the presence of the pontiff, 

7. Upon receiving the intelligence, to what did Gregory proceed? With the advice 
if a numerous council, what did he do ? What is said of this power? Of this doctrine? 
Give some instances in which it was supported by sovereigns themselves. What 
does not appear ? — S. In an age, &c, what was soon admitted? In the case of Henry IV, 
what do we hear ? To pronounce this sentence, belonged to whom ? — 9. What did Ger- 
man princes do? What is sai«i of the disressed monarch t How did Henry meet 
Gregory ? 



ITALY, 269 

1 acknowledging his guilt, and expressing his readiness to make 
all the satisfaction in his power. Gregory, who had repeatedly 

' experienced the insincerity of the emperor, kept him by way of 
trial, in suspense, for three days ; on the fourth day he gave him 
an audience, received his submission, and absolved him on cer- 
tain conditions. 

10. The repentance of Henry was of short duration. Having 
assembled anun.erous army, he refused to comply with the terms 
to which he had subscribed, and resumed his former course of 
violence against the church and state. At length the German 
princes, disgusted with the perfidious conduct of their sovereign, 
proceeded to the election of another ; the choice fell upon Su- 
dolpfi, Duke of Suabia. A civil war ensued, which terminated in 
the death of Rudolph, who perished in a battle near Mersburg, 
leaving Henry master of the empire. Elated by this success, the 
conqueror marched into Italy, and having taken Rome, he en- 
tered the Lateran palace, and caused the excommunicated bishop 
of Ravenna to be declared pope, under the title of Clement III. In 
the mean time, Gregory had retired to the strong castle of St. An- 
gelo, where he remained until the arrival of Robert Gidscard, the 
leader of the Normans, who obliged Henry to retire with his anti- 
pope. The lawful pontiff was thus left master of the city; but as 
party violence rendered it unsafe or unpleasant for him to remain 
there, he removed to Mount Cassino, and finally to Salerno, 
where he was taken dangerously ill. A few moments before his 
death, he uttered these words : " I have loved justice, and have 
hated iniquity : wherefore I die in a strange land ;" after this he 
calmly expired, on the twenty-fifth of May, A. D. 1085. 

11. In 1311, Henry VII., Emperor of Germany, invaded Italy, 
and caused himself to be crowned king of Lombardy, at Milan. 
Italy was at this period in a state of anarchy, divided by two con- 
tending factions, which took their origin during the civil war in 
Germany ; the one in favor of the emperor, styled the Ghibellines, 
the other his opponents, called the Gnelphs. During the contest, 
the pope, finding his situation at Rome unpleasant, removed the 
seat of" his power to Avignon, in France. In 1377, the Holy See 
was again removed back to Rome by Pope Gregory IX. After 
his death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for the 
freedom of election. This gave rise to that celebrated contest for 
the pontifical chair called the Great Schism of the West ; the 
affair was finally settled by the Council of Constans, and tran- 
quillity restored by the election of Martin Colonna. 

12. The illustrious family of the Medici, at this period, attained 
to a high degree of eminence in Florence, under Cosmo de Medici, 
who received the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany. The power 

How long was he kept on trial ?— 10. What was the repentance c' Henry ? Having 
assembled his army, what did he do? Whom did the German princes choose in his 
place? What ensued? What was the fate of Rudolph ? What did Henry now do? 
Where did Gregory retire ? Where did he remove ? What words did he utter before 
his death? — 11. In 1311 what took place ? What was Ihe state of Italy at this period ? 
During the contest, where did the popes remove ? In 1377, what happened ? To what 
did this give rise?— 12. Wr»j=tia taid o' the family of the Medic* What does their 
power form ? 

23* 



270 TURKEY. 

of the Medici, which continued upwards of a century, forms a 
brilliant era in literature and the liberal arts; and the republic 
enjoyed a high degree of splendor during that period. Cosmo 
himself was a liberal patron of science, and employed his im- 
mense wealth iv erecting works of taste and literary institutions. 
His dwelling at Florence exceeded in magnificence any palace in 
Europe; yet he was plain and unassuming in his private charac 
ter. Cosmo II., who succeeded to the head of the government in 
1537, encouraged the fine arts, and is said to have been the most 
magnificent patron of genius since the days of Augustus. 

13. The subsequent history of Italy affords few events of im- 
portance until the period of the French revolution. The Italian 
states shared largely of the convulsions caused by the event. 
The French overran the Ecclesiastiral States, took the city of 
Rome, and dragged the aged portiff', Pius VI., captive into 
France, where he died, in 1799. The kings of Naples and Sar- 
dinia were likewise driven from their dominions. In 1809, 
Napoleon solicited the pope to close his harbors against British 
commerce, and become a party in the war against Russia. To 
these measures Pius VII. returned a positive refusal, saying that 
" being the father of all Christian nations, he could not, consist- 
ently with that character, become the enemy of any one." 

14. The emperor, highly incensed at this courageous reply, 
issued a decree at Vienna, declaring the Ecclesiastical State an- 
nexed to his empire. The venerable pontiff was immediately 
sent into captivity and exile, having previously pronounced the 
sentence of excommunication against the emperor. The pope 
remained in captivity for about five years, until after the first 
dethronement of Napoleon, in 1814, when he again returned to 
Rome. 



TURKEY. 

The Turks derive their origin from the Huns, who inhabited 
Grand Tartary, in Asia : At the commencement of the eighth 
century, we find them issuing from their obscure retreat, and 
settling in Pannonia and Asia-Minor. At first their dominions 
were divided into various small states, and governed by persons 
called Emirs. Towards the close of the twelfth century, Oth- 
man or Ottoman, who assumed the title of Sultan, succeeded in 
uniting them in one monarchy, and established the seat of his 
government at Prusa, in Bithynia. 

What was Cosmo? What is said of his dwelling? What is said of Cosmo II. ?-- 
13. What did the French do? In 1809, what did Napoleon do? What was the answer 
of Pius VII. ? — 14. What decree did the emperor issue? What was the fate of the 
pontiff? When did he return from captivity? 

1. From whom do the Turks derive their origin? In the eighth century, what do 
wc find? Towarls the close of the twelfth century, what took place ? 



TURKEY. 271 

2. Previous to this period, the Turks or Ottomans, (so called 
from the name of the founder of their monarchy,) had embraced 
the religion of Mahomet, which they retain to the present time. 
During the reign of this monarch, they extended their dominions 
to the borders of the Greek empire y and during the reign of his 
successor they crossed the Hellespont on rafts, took Gallipoli, 
entered Thrace, and thus laid the foundation of their empire in 
Europe. Bajazet 1. had formed the project of invading Greece 
and reducing its capital, Constantinople, but was obliged to defet 
the execution of his design in order to defend himself against the 
encroachments of the celebrated Tamerlane, king of the Usbec 
Tartars, who had invaded his dominions. The two mighty chief- 
tains met at Angora, where was fought one of the most san- 
guinary battles recorded in history. The united combatants 
amounted to nearly a million of men, of whom three hundred 
thousand were left dead upon the field. Bajazet fell into the 
hands of the conqueror, and shortly afterwards destroyed himself 
in despair. 

3. The reign of Amurath IT. was distinguished by his unsuccess- 
ful attempt to render himself master of the Greek capital, and his 
war with Poland. He was succeeded by his son Mahomet II., 
jurnamed the Great, who immediately undertook the favorite 
object of his predecessor, namely, the reduction of the capital of 
the Eastern Empire. After some short delay in making the 
necessary preparations, he assailed the city of Constantinople 
both by sea and land. The indolent inhabitants, deeming them- 
selves secure beneath the shelter of those walls, which for ages 
had bid defiance to every assault, made but a feeble preparation 
for their defense. Constantine, the last of the Greek emperors, 
alone seemed conscious of the impending danger, and began to 
prepare, with prudence and vigor, for the contest that was to de- 
cide the fate of his empire. 

4. He continued night and day with his troops, to animate 
them by his presence, and to encourage them by his example. 
On the other hand, Mahomet, by the promise of increased pay 
and the spoils of the city in case of victory, stimulated his sol- 
diers to redoubled energy. Both ancient and modern artillery 
were brought to bear during this memorable siege. The impreg- 
nable walls of Constantinople at length yielded to the combined 
force of the battering-ram and the cannon. On the 29th of May 
the city was taken by an assault and delivered up to the plunder 
of the victors. Constantine fell gloriously defending his country 
and his throne, and was afterwards found buried amidst the heaps 
of the slain. 

5. The great church of St. Sophia was immediately converted 
into a mosque, and the Turkish crescent elevated upon the dome 

2. Previous to this period whE.t had the Turks embraced ? What did they do durm« 
the reign of this monarch and his successor ? What project had Bajazet I. formedl 
Where did the two chieftains meet? What was the number of the combatants and 
the number slain ?— 3. For what was the reign of Amurath II. distinguished ? By whom 
Was he succeeded? What did he do? What is said of the inhabitants? OfConstan 
tine? — 4. What did he do? How did Mahomet stimulate his soldiers? On the 29th 
of May what took place ? What, was the fate of Constantine ?— 5. Into wha; was the 
church of St. Sophia converted? 



272 TURKEY. 

where the cross had for ages reigned. A crier proclaimed a 
public invitation to prayer in the name of God and his prophet, 
and Mahomet II. knelt at the altar, w/iere only a few days before 
the ill-fated Constantine, the last of the Caesars, had received the 
Christian sacrament. 

6. On the fall of Constantinople, Mahomet carried his victo- 
rious arms over all Greece and Epirus. But death put an end to 
his career of conquest in 1481. His successor, Bajazet II., after 
carrying on various wars against the Saracens, Venetians, Hun- 
garians, and others, was compelled to abdicate his crown to his 
ungrateful son, by whose order he was basely murdered. During 
the reign of Selim I., Syria and Egypt were conquered. His 
successor, Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, was the most 
illustrious of all the Turkish sovereigns; he took the island of 
Rhodes from the knights of St. John, laid siege to Vienna, re- 
duced Bagdad, established his dominion over the whole of Assy- 
ria and Mesopotamia, and passed many excellent laws. 

7. The reigns of his successors, Selim II. and Amurath III., 
were not marked by any transaction of importance. Mahomet 
III. commenced his reign by a display of unparalleled barbarity ; 
he caused nineteen of his brothers to be strangled, and ten of his 
father's wives to be drowned. The empire, however, continued 
to flourish except in the naval department. Othman II. invaded 
Poland, where he suffered a most signal defeat, with the loss of 
eighty thousand men, and ended his life by assassination. Amu- 
rath IV. took Bagdad, and caused thirty thousand Persians to be 
slaughtered; during the reign of Mahomet IV. Candia fell under 
the Ottoman power after sustaining fifty-six assaults, in which the 
Turks lost one hundred and eighteen thousand men. Mahomet 
afterwards besieged Vienna with an army of two hundred thou- 
sand, from which he was compelled to retire in disgrace, through 
the intrepidity of John Sobieski, king of Poland. 

8. The small but enterprising and martial republic of Venice, 
for one hundred and fifty years checked the Ottoman power. 
Since the reign of Achmet JIL, who was deposed in 1730, the 
Turkish power has been on the decline. The reign of Mustapha 
III was distinguished by a ruinous war with Russia, which con 
tinued, with but little intermission, until the reign of Selim III., 
in 1792, when it was terminated by making important conces- 
sions to the Russian empire. During the reign of Selim, Buona- 
parte invaded Egypt, and took possession of Cairo and all the 
Delta. The year 1821 was distinguished for the commencement 
of the Greek revolution, which finally resulted in the emancipa- 
tion of Greece from the power of Turkey. 

What dul the public crier do ?— 6. On the fall of Constantinople, what did Mahome.t 
dc ? What was done by his successor ? What is' said of Solyman I. ? "What did he 
caKe? — 7. How did Mahomet III. commence his reign? What did Othman invade? 
How did he die? What did Amurath IV. take? During the reign of Mahomet IV. 
what was done ? — 8. What is said of the republic of Venice ? For what was the roign 
Of Mustapha III. distinguished ? During the reign of Solim, who invaded Egypt ? in 
J 821, what took place ? 



MODERN GREECE. 

1. In our view of Ancient Greece, we pursued its history to its 
final conquest and subjugation by the Roman arms. The subse- 
quent history of this country, until the building of Constantinople, 
and the great division of the Roman empire by the transfer of the 
eeat of government from Rome to that city, presents but few 
events of importance. After the death of Theodocius the Great, 
the last sovereign who presided over both divisions of the empire, 
his son Achadius reigned in the East, and therefore may be re- 
garded as the first of the Greek emperors. 

2. He was a weak and indolent prince, controlled in every 
transaction by his wife Eudoxia, a haughty and imperious woman ; 
his whole reign presents scarcely a single action worthy of the son 
of the illustrious Theodocius. He was succeeded by his son Theo- 
docius the Younger, whose reign was short, and, like that of his 
father, was unimportant. The emperors who succeeded Theodo- 
cius, until the reign of Justinian, have left behind them no trans- 
actions that deserve a notice in this short compendium. 

3. Justinian had been associated in the empire with Justin /., 
and succeeded to the sole command on the death of that emperor, 
in the year 527* Justinian displayed his greatest wisdom in the 
choice he made of his ministers ; and his reign is conspicuous, not 
for any memorable transaction of his own, but chiefly for the 
military operations of his generals. The great and illustrious 
Belisarius, one of the most distinguished of his generals, defeated 
the Persians in three sanguinary battles ; destroyed the kingdom 
of the Vandals in Africa, and led their sovereign captive to Con- 
stantinople; wrested Italy from the hand of the Gothic princes, 
and restored it for a short period to the dominions of Justinian. 

4. The Goths a second time overran Italy, and again Belisa- 
rius was sent against them. But being left without the means 
necessary for conducting the war, that illustrious general was 
doomed to see his former prosperity decline, and himself treated 
with neglect by the man whose empire he had so repeatedly and 
so successfully defended against its foreign and domestic ene- 
mies. He was superseded in the command by Narses, who had 
the honor of terminating the war in Italy. He defeated Totila in 
a decisive engagement on the plains of Lentagio, in which the 
Gothic king was slain, and governed Italy under the title of duke 
for thirteen years. 

5. While victory crowned the arms of Justinian in the West, 
the ravages of war threatened the destruction of his empire in the 
East. Chosroes the Great, king of Persia, for several years 

1. In the review of ancient Greece, how far -*«d we pursue Its h. story? Whnt is 
said of the subsequent history ? Who is regarded as the first at the Greek omperors ? 
—2. What was he ? By whom was he succeeded ?— 3. In what did Justinian dit-pltty 
his greatest wisdom ? What did Belisarius do ?— 4. What is said of the Goths ? What 
was the general doomed to see ? By whom was he superseded? Whom did Narses 
defeai * -5 What is said of Chosroes the Great? 

273 



274 MODERN GREECE. 

spread devastation over the rich and fertile provinces of Mesopo 
tamia and Syria, frequently routing the army of the emperor with 
immense loss Scarcely was peace concluded with this formidable 
enemy, than the Huns, a furious and warlike race, made an ir- 
ruption into Thrace, and even threatened the capital itself. Once 
more the empire was saved through the valor of Belisarius. 
Though far advanced in years, and scarcely able to wield his 
sword, he marched against the barbarians, and compelled them 
to retire. Unfortunately for this great man, he lived under the 
reign of a prince who was unable to appreciate his merits. In 
return for his many services rendered to the empire, the ungrate- 
ful Justinian, on mere suspicion of his being privy to a late con- 
spiracy, stripped him of all his honors, caused him to be arrested 
and cast into prison, where he languished for several months. 
[See his life in Biography.] 

6. Justinian died in the eighty-fourth year of his age, and in the 
thirty -ninth of his reign, A. D. 565. It was not, however, the 
military operations of this prince that render his reign so distin- 
guished. The famous body of laws prepared under his direc- 
tion, by the learned Tribonian, known by the name of the Justi- 
nian Code, have reflected a brighter lustre on his name, and have 
conferred greater benefits on posterity than all the military 
achievements of his generals. From this code the different states 
of Europe have derived the greater portion of the laws that make 
up their respective codes. Previous to the time of Justinian, to 
become acquainted with the ancient jurisprudence, it was neces- 
sary to peruse near two thousand volumes, a task which would 
take the longest lifetime to perform. The Justinian code was 
comprised in about fifty books, to which were added four others, 
called the Institutes, containing the fundamental principles of all 
legislation. # 

7. Justinian was succeeded in the empire by his nephew Justin 
II. Though a prince of much virtue, Justin was a man of weak 
intellect, and wholly governed by his consort Sophia, whose ar- 
rogant conduct brought new disasters on the empire. Against 
Narses, who still governed in Italy, the empress had long harbored 
a deadly hatred ; and now believing herself in an elevation from 
which she could fearlessly wreak her vengeance, she sent him an 
insolent order to quit Italy and return to Constantinople. Narses, 
who inherited much of the military abilities of Belisarius, hut 
wanted the patriotism and virtuous forbearance of that illustrious 
general, wrote to Mboinus, the king of the Lombards, and in- 
vited him to Italy to avenge the insult he had received. But 
scarcely had he consented to this hasty step, than he repented of 
an act which tended to dishonor a life otherwise distinguished by 
so many brilliant achievements. But his repentance came too 
late to prevent the evil ; the Lombards had already set out for 

Of the Huns? How was the empire saved? In return what did he receive ?- 
— -6. When did Justinian die ? What has his body of laws reflected? From this code, 
what has been derived ? Previous to this time, what was necessary ?— 7. By whom 
was Justinian succeeded? What was he? By whom waf he governed? What is re- 
lated of Narses ? AVhat did he do 7 



MODERN GREECE. 275 

Italy, and having crossed the Alps, they subdued that part of the 
country called from them Lo?nbardy, and made Pavia the capital 
of their kingdom. 

8. The Persians under Chosroes, again laid waste the eastern 
provinces of the empire. At the intelligence of these disasters, 
Justin was thrown into a deep melancholy, which gradually de- 
generated into a partial insanity. Perceiving that he was unable 
to direct the affairs of government alone, he had the prudence to 
associate with himself a colleague in the empire. The choice fell 
upon Tiberius, a man in every respect qualified for the important 
station. The honor of the empire was soon retrieved ; Chosroes 
was driven to the extremity of Persia, where, being unable to sur- 
vive his defeat, he died of grief and despair, after a reign of forty- 
eight years. 

9. The words of Justin upon the introduction of Tiberius to 
the empire, are worthy of record : " Love the people as yourself, 
cultivate the affection and maintain the discipline of the army; 
protect the fortunes of the rich, and relieve the necessities of the 
poor." Tiberius, during his short reign, which lasted four years 
after the death of Justin, was never known to depart from this 
excellent advice; and on his death-bed he nominated Maurice, 
who had proved himself an able general, as his successor to the 
throne. 

10. The reign of this prince was turbulent, and his end tragi- 
cal. He possessed many virtues, and on some occasions dis- 
played a considerable degree of prudence and courage, but 
avarice is said to have been his greatest fault. During one of his 
campaigns, twelve thousand of his troops fell into the hands of the 
enemy; Maurice refused to redeem them, although but a small 
sum was asked for their ransom ; this refusal so enra<pd^e bar- 
barians, that they put them all to the sword. While this conduct 
excited against him the loudest complaints, he had the imprudence 
to order his troops to take up their quarters in the enemy's coun- 
try, and to subsist there during the winter by plunder. The sol- 
diers, exasperated at this command, revolted, and having pro- 
claimed Phocas emperor, advanced towards Constantinople. 

11. At the news of this event, Maurice endeavored to make his 
escape with his family ; but at Chalcedon he fell into the hands 
of his pursuers, and his five sons were barbarously put to death in 
the presence of their unhappy father, who, in the bitterness of his 
affliction, repeated these words of the royal prophet : *' Thou art 
just, O Lord, and thy judgment is right." When the nurse en- 
deavored to conceal the royal infant, and offered her own child 
to the executioner, Maurice refused to allow the deception. The 
tragical scene was ended by the execution of the emperor him- 
self, who fell with his unfortunate children. 



8. "What did the Persians do ? What happened Justin ? What had he the prudenco 
to do? On whom did the choice fall ? — 9. What were the words of Justin to Tiberius? 
What is said of Tiberius ?— 10. What is said of the reign of this prince ? What hap- 
pened dui ing one campaign ? What did he refuse ? What did he order ? What did tha 
soldiers do ?— 11. At this news, what did Maurice do ? At Chalcedon, what is related 
of him? What did he repeat ? What is said of the nurso ? . 






276 MODERN GREECE. 

12. Phocas did not long enjoy his ill-gotten crown. While he 
remained shut up in his capital, C/wsroes II., king of the Persians, 
crossed the boundary of empire, and spread desolation over some 
of the most fertile districts of Mesopotamia and Syria. The senate 
of Constantinople, seeing nothing done for the defense of the em- 
pire, invited Heraclius, the governor of Africa, to their assistance^ 
offering him the purple as the reward of his services. Heraclius 
having declined the honor on account of his advanced age, the 
offer was eagerly embraced by his son, of the same name, who im- 
mediately embarking with a select body of troops, arrived before 
the walls of Constantinople, almost before the usurper had any 
intimation of his approach. Phocas, deserted by his friends, was 
instantly seized and beheaded ; while at the same time Heraclius 
was proclaimed emperor. A. D. 610. 

13. The reign of this emperor was almost one unbroken series 
of war and victory over his formidable neighbors, the Persians, 
whom he defeated in six successive campaigns, and at length 
obliged them to sue for peace. During his reign, which lasted 
for upwards of thirty years, he continued to defend and pre 
serve the dignity of the empire. The several emperors who sue 
ceeded Heraclius, have left little of importance to distinguish their 
reigns. The reign of Constantine Pagonatus is conspicuous foi 
the memorable siege which Constantinople sustained against the 
Saracens, who for several successive years presented themselves 
before the walls of the city, but were as often vigorously repulsed, 
and at last obliged to abandon the enterprise. One of the most 
destructive agents used by the Greeks during this age, was the 
Grecian Fire, which had the peculiar property of burning in 
water, and could only be extinguished by sand, wine, or vinegar. 
It was invented by a Syrian named Collinicus, and employed 
with great effect by the Greeks in their different wars for several 
centuries, before the secret of its composition was discovered by 
the neighboring nations. 

14. Justinian //., who succeeded Constantine, was distin- 
guished for his cruelty ; he was at length banished from the em 
pire, but having regained the throne by the assistance of the Bui 
garians, he exercised the most fearful vengeance on his enemies ; 
his reign, however, was cut short by assassination. In the short 
space of six years, the scepter passed through the handsof three 
successive emperors. In 717, Leo, surnamed the Isaurian, suc- 
ceeded in wresting it from the hand of the weak Theodo- 
cius HI. 

15. The reign of this monarch is more conspicuous for the hos- 
tility he manifested towards the use of sacred images in the 
churches, than for any important service he rendered to the em- 
pire. Leo, unable to comprehend that the veneration of image9 
is only an inferior honor paid to the persons whom they represent, 
published a violent edict against the use of them in the churches. 

12. What is said of Phocas ? What did the Senate do ? By whom wis the offer em- 
braced? What was the end of Phocas? — 13. What was the reign of this emperor? 
For what is the reign of Constantine Pagonatus conspicuous? What was one of tho 
Oiost destructive agents ? What is said of it? — 14. What is said of Justinian [I. ? What 
look place ? — 15. For what is his reign memorable ? What is said of Leo ? 



MODERN GREECE. 277 

In consequence of this order, the pictures and images of Christ, 
and of the saints, were removed, not, however, without causing 
loud complaints and much disturbance. On one occasion, Leo 
ordered the execution of twelve librarians, whom he was unable 
to gain over to his party, and caused the destruction of the public 
library of Constantinople. The persecution was carried on under 
his successors, Constantine and Leo IV., until the affair was 
finally settled by the seventh General Council, held at Nice, 
which solemnly decided that the relative honor paid to images was 
in accordance with Scripture and the early practice of the church, 
and free from the charge of idolatry and superstition. 

16. During the minority of Constantine v., the empress Irene, 
his mother, was appointed regent. She was a woman distinguished 
alike for her great abilities and cruelty. By her order, Tier son 
was deposed, and murdered in a barbarous manner. After this 
she governed alone for five years; but an insurrection being ex- 
cited against her, she was in her turn deposed, and Neciphorus, 
the great treasurer, proclaimed emperor. The unfortunate Irene 
was banished to the Isle of Lesbos, where, it is said, she was 
obliged to gain a scanty subsistence by the labor of her hands, a 
melancholy; example or blasted ambition. 

17. Neciphorus did not long enjoy the honor to which he was 
raised ; having undertaken an expedition against the Bulgarians, 
he was defeated and slain in battle. During the short reigns of 
Stauracius and Michael, the Bulgarians in their turn invaded the 
empire, and carried their devastations so far as even to threaten 
the capital itself. Such was the situation of things, when Leo 
the Armenian, ascended the throne. Leo being a man of great 
military abilities, immediately marched against the Bulgarians, 
over whom he gained several decisive victories, and after a pros- 
perous reign of seven years, he was assassinated by the partisans 
of Michael, the commander of the guards, who was raised from 
the prison, (where he had been confined on a charge of rebellion,) 
to the throne. During the reign of this weak and profligate 
prince, the empire suffered the loss of the islands of Crete and 
Sicily, which were conquered by theMussulmen; and during the 
reign of Theophilus, his successor, the eastern Saracens took and 
destroyed the flourishing city of Amorium, in Asia Minor, and 
led thirty thousand of its inhabitants as captives into Persia. ' 

18. 7/ieophilus was succeeded by his son, Michael III., a man 
of the most dissolute character and abandoned habits. It was 
during the reign of this emperor, that the first separation of the 
Greek and Latin church took place. \_See Christian Church.] 
After a reign of twenty-five years, he was assassinated in a state 
of intoxication, and Basil the Macedonian, his colleague, a man 
of humble birth, was acknowledged as sole emperor, A. D. 867. 

"What v.*as the consequence of this order? On one occasion, what did he ordeT? 
When was the affair settled? What did it decide ?— 16. During the minority of Con- 
stantine, who was appointed regent? W hat was done by her order ? What was ex- 
cited against her ? AVhat was her fate? — 17. What is said of Neciphorus? Against 
whom did Lro march ? What was his end ? What is said of the empire during the 
reign of this prince ? — 18. By whom was Theophilus succeeded? What tock place 
during h.s reign ? What was his en 1 ? "Who succeeded ? 

24 



278 MODERN GREECE. 

Through the vigilance and activity of Basil, the disorders of the 
preceding reign were soon removed, and peace restored to every 
department of the state. He waged successful war against the 
Saracens, and after a successful reign of nineteen years, he died 
from an accident which he received in the chase, A. D. 886. 

19. Under the succeeding emperors, until the reign of JYeci- 
phonis Phocas, who ascended the throne in 963, the Greek em- 

f)ire had greatly fallen from its former splendor. Necipfwrus, by 
lis great military talents, for a short period, supported its de- 
clining glory. Having recovered the island of Crete, he next 
invaded Asia, and wrested from the Saracens several towns and 
provinces, which he unitea to the empire. By his avarice and 
exactions, he at length alienated the affection of his subjects; a 
conspiracy having been formed against him, he was assassinated, 
and Joan Zemisces, one of the chief conspirators, was raised to 
the throne. 

20. This emperor, although he wore the crown of his mur 
dered sovereign, directed the affairs of government with an able 
hand. He effectually repelled the irruption of the Russians, 
whom he defeated in several sanguinary battles, and finally com 
pelled them to retire to their own dominions. He was equally 
successful in his war against the Saracens, who, availing them- 
selves of his absence, had conquered several places in Asia. His 
prosperous career, however, was cut short by the treachery of his 
chief minister, who caused him to be poisoned, in the sixth yeai 
of his reign. 

21. After his death, Basil II. and Constantine VIII. , reigned 
jointly together, but the exercise of the supreme authority was 
left entirely to the former. He was possessed of a military and 
enterprising spirit; he reduced Bulgaria, and considerably ex- 
tended the limits of the empire in the East. He was preparing 
for an expedition against the Saracens of Sicily, when he died, in 
the sixty-eighth year of his age, and fifty-first of his reign, A. D. 
1025. During the fifty succeeding years, fifteen different em- 
perors filled the throne in succession, but their reigns are not 
distinguished for any remarkable transaction. At the time of the 
Crusades, Constantinople was taken by the French and Vene • 
tians, and held by them for a period of near sixty years, during 
which time the Greek emperors reigned at Nice. In 1261, in the 
reign of Michael Palseologus, Constantinople was again recovered 
from the conquerors. 

22. In the year 1453, during the reign of Constantine Palxoh- 
gus, Constantinople was besieged and taken by the Turk* 
under Mahomet II. \_See Turkey.] Since that eventful period, 
until within a few years, the unhappy Greeks groaned under 
the weight of Turkish despotism. In 1820, animated by a spirit 

WheE did he lie?— 19. What is said o r iJre\)\oras' f . "What was his iate?_ Whs 
succeeded? — 20. What is said of this er.ir.e.o. * */V"..b'. WxS 'kis end?— 21. After his 
death, who reigned jointly? Who excrvV/ »V r ^p-er.c authority? What did lie 
reduce? When did he die ? At the ti'it i y 4 V / "iV J a / .ec ; what happened ? lit 1831 
what took place ?— 22. In 1453, what l< '.i \\ r S 



AMERICA. 279 

of freedom, they commenced an open revolt; and after the 
war had continued for several years, several of the European 
powers interposed in their behalf. On the 20th of October 
1828, the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, 
completely destroyed the Turkish naval force in the battle of 
Navarino, an event which secured the independence of Greece. 
The government chosen for the country by the great European 
powers is a limited monarchy, and the present sovereign is Olho, 
the son of Louis Charles of Bavaria, who bears the title of King 
of Greece. 



AMERICA. 
SECTION I. 



'Jlie Discovery of the Country; the Conquest of Mexico and 
Peru; the Manners ana Customs of the Indians. 

1. For several years previous to the discovery of America, the 
attention of the Portuguese was directed towards finding a pas- 
sage to the East Indies, by doubling the southern extremity of 
Africa, and then taking an easterly course, and it was the pursuit 
of this favorite object that led to the important discovery that 
followed. The honor of accomplishing an exploit so sublime as 
that of the discovery of the Western continent, belongs to Chris- 
topher Columbus, a native of Genoa. This illustrious man was 
well qualified by nature and education for this arduous under- 
taking. At the age of fourteen he engaged in a seafaring life ; he 
was well versed in geometry, astronomy, geography, and naval 
science ; calm, persevering, and patient under the most trying 
circumstances ; dignified in his deportment ; at all times perfectly 
master of himself, and capable of eliciting the esteem, and com- 
manding the obedience of all under his direction. 

2. The spherical figure of the earth was now generally admitted, 
and its magnitude was estimated with some degree of accuracy. 
Columbus, reasoning from these facts, and from the observations 
of modern navigators, arrived at this very just conclusion, that 
Europe, Asia, and Africa formed but a small portion of the terra- 
queous globe, and that to complete the balance, another continent 
must necessarily exist, which he supposed to be united to Asia, 
and might be reached by sailing west from Europe. Pieces of 
wood artificially carved, and reeds driven by a westerly wind, had 

Since that period, what is said ? In 1820, what took place ? And on the 20th of Oc- 
tober, 1328? What is the government chosen for the country? Who ii the present 
king? 

1. For several years, to what was the attention of the Portuguese directed ? To 
whom does the honor, &c, belong ? What is said of this illustrious man ? Give hia 
character ?— 2. What was now admitted ? At what conclusion did Columbus arrive ? 
What did he suppose 7 What had been taken up 1 



280 AMERICA. 

been taken up in the ocean, west of the Madeira Islands ; trees, 
and on one occasion, the bodies of two men of strange features, 
were driven upon the Azores. 

3. Convinced of the truth of his theory, Columbus was impatient 
to test it by experiment. Anxious that his native country should 
participate in the honor that might arise from so noble > an enter- 
prise, he first solicited the patronage of the senate of Gfenoa; but, 
to his great mortification, they treated his theory as a visionary 
project. He next applied for assistance to the Portuguese, but 
was again refused. He then despatched his brother Bartholomew 
to the court of England, to solicit the patronage of Henry VII.; 
but Bartholomew having been captured by pirates, did not reach 
England for several years. 

4. In the mean time, Columbus laid his plans before Ferdinand 
and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, who gave him a favorable 
hearing. At length after years of patient solicitation, and after 
surmounting difficulties under which any other than Columbus 
would have sunk in despair, he obtained a gleam of hope from the 
royal favor of Isabella. The queen, fired with the glory that must 
follow from the accomplishment of so grand an enterprise, and 
anxious to spread the Christian religion, resolved to lend her 
assistance to Columbus. But owing to the low state of her finance, 
in consequence of the long war with the Moors, who had jusl 
been expelled from Spain, she offered to pledge her jewels iu 
order to complete the preparations necessary for the voyage; from 
this embarrassment, however, she was relieved by the liberality 
of two Spanish noblemen, who advanced the necessary sum from 
their own private means. 

5. On the 17th of April, more than seven years from the time 
of his first application, an armament was fitted out, consisting of 
three small vessels, called the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and ffig- 
na, carrying ninety men, with provisions for only twelve months. 
Columbus, previous to entering on the voyage, was appointed 
admiral of all the seas he should explore, and governor of all the 
islands he should subdue. 

6. On the 3d of August, in the year 1492, Columbus set sail 
from the port of Palws in Spain; and after touching at the Canary 
islands, where he refitted his vessels, he proceeded on his voyage, 
taking a westerly direction into seas unknown and unexplored, 
without a chart to guide his course. By the 14th of September, 
the fleet stood two hundred leagues west from the Canaries 
Here it was observed that the magnetic needle in the compass did 
not point directly to the north star, but varied towards the west. 
The phenomenon, which had never been observed before, excited 
alarm and terror in the breasts of the Spanish sailors. They were 
then in a vast and trackless ocean, nature itself seemed to change 
and their only guide was about to fail. 

What on one occasion ?— 3. Why did he solicit the patronage of Genoa? Where 
did Jie next apply? Where did lie send his brother? — 4 In the mean time what d;d 
Columbus do? At length what did he obtain? What is said of the queen? By whom 
was she relieved ? — 5. On the. 17th of April, what was done? What were the names 
of the vessels?— 6. When did Columbus set sail? By the 14th of September, where 
was the fleet 7 Here what was observed? What is said ol this phenomenon? 



AMERICA. 281 

7. Columbus, with his usual presence of mind, gave a solution 
for this phenomenon, which served to dispel the fears and silence 
the murmurs of his companions, although it was not satisfactory 
to himself. Having proceeded on his voyage for thirty days 
more without any prospect of land, the spirit of mutiny began 
again to manifest itself among the sailors, who now agreed among 
themselves to compel Columbus, by force, to return, while the 
vessels were in a condition to keep at sea. Never was there a 
more trying moment for Columbus. To exercise coersive mea- 
sures on such an occasion, would be a dangerous expedient; to 
reason with men in whose breasts fear had extinguished every 
generous sentiment was useless, to return would blast for ever 
his highest expectations. Therefore, as the last expedient, he had 
recourse to exhortations and encouragement, and so far yielded 
to their importunities, as to propose to abandon the expedition 
and return to Spain, if land should not be discovered within the 
short space of three clays. 

8. For some days previous to this, the sounding line had reached 
the bottom, the flocks of birds increased, the air was more mild 
and warm. From all these symptoms, Columbus concluded that 
land was at no great distance; and on the evening of the 11th of 
October, he ordered the sails to be furled and a watch to be set. 
While standing on the forecastle, he beheld a light carried from 
place to place, and shortly after midnight the joyful sound of land 
was heard from the crew of the Pinta. From this moment until 
the return of day realized their expectations, no eye was closed; 
all on board were in the deepest suspense and sleepless expecta- 
tion. But as the morning dawned, their doubts were expelled; 
a beautiful island presented itself to their view. 

9. The crew of the Pinta immediately broke forth in a hymn 
of thanksgiving to God, in which they were joined by those of the 
other vessels, in tears of joy and congratulation. This office of 
gratitude to Heaven was next followed by an act of retribution to 
their commander; they threw themselves at his feet with the hum- 
blest acknowledgments of their rashness and disobedience, and 
besought his forgiveness. As the sun arose, the boats were man- 
ned and rowed towards the shore, with the Spanish colors floating 
to the breeze, while at the same time martial music rent the air. Co- 
lumbus richly attired and with a drawn sword in his hand, was 
the first European who set his foot upon the New World. His 
men immediately followed, and falling upon their knees, with 
tears of joy they kissed the ground which they had long desired 
to behold. They next erected a crucifix, and prostrating them- 
selves before it they returned solemn thanks to God, whose benign 
hand had guided them safe through a thousand dangers, and con- 
ducted their voyage to so happy an issue. They then took solemn 

7. What did Columbus do ? What again manifested itself ? What did they agree ? 
What did he propose, &c. ?— 8. For some days previous what had been observed? 
From these what did Columbus conclude and order ? What was heard at midnight? 
From this moment what is said ? — What did the crew of the Pinta do ? By what 
was this office, &c. followed ? As the sun arose, what was done ? Who was the first 
to land on the New World? W r hat did his men do? What did they erect? What 
followed ? 



282 AMERICA. 

possession of the country in the name of the sovereigns of Castile 
and Leon. 

10. On the landing of the Spaniards, they found the coast co- 
vered with a race of people differing from any that they had ever 
seen before. They were of a dark copper color, without clothing 
or beards, and their hair flowing loosely upon their shoulders. 
The natives were equally surprised at the appearance of the Spa- 
niards, whom they considered as the children of the sun, their 
idol ; they regarded the ships as a species of animals, with eyes 
of lightning and voices of thunder. 

11. The first land discovered by Columbus was one of the Ba- 
hama islands, called by him St. Salvador; it is also distinguished 
by the name of Cat Island. He afterwards visited Cuba and 
ttayli or St. Domingo, to which he gave the name of Ilispaniota, 
anil on which ne left some of his men for the purpose of forming a 
colony. As Columbus had reached these islands by a western pas- 
sage, and believing them not far distant from the unexplored region 
of India, they were denominated the West Indies, and the abori- 
gines of the country were designated by the appellation of In- 
dians, a name which they retain to the present time. After some 
time spent in exploring the country and in amicable traffic with 
the natives, and having collected a quantity of gold, Columbus 
set sail on his return to Spain. 

12. During the voyage he was overtaken by a violent storm, 
which continued for fifteen days, and exposed the already shat- 
tered vessels to the most imminent danger. While the storm 
continued, Columbus, with great presence of mind, enclosed in a 
cake of wax a short account of the voyage and discovery, and 
placing it in a cask he committed it to the sea, with the hope that 
if he should perish, it might fall into the hands of some navigator 
or be cast ashore, and thus the knowledge of his discovery might 
be preserved to the world. But the storm fortunately abated, and 
Columbus arrived safely in the port of Palos, from which he had 
sailed about seven months before. He was received with the 
loudest acclamations by the people ? who gazed with astonishment 
on the riches and the various curiosities which he brought with 
him from the New World 5 at Barcelona he met with a gracious 
reception from Ferdinand and Isabella. 

13. Columbus, in his third voyage to the new world, discovered 
the continent, and landed in several places in the northern part 
of South America. But his success and the great marks of favor 
shown him by his sovereign, did not fail to excite envy and jc.i- 
lousy against him in the court of Spain. In consequence of vaii 
ous false and groundless charges, he was deprived of the govern 
ineut of Hispaniola, and sent home in chains. The captain of the 
vessel in which he returned, through respect to his illustrious 
captive, offered to release him from his fetters To whom Co- 

10. On landing:, what did the Spaniards find? What is said of tne natives?— 11. "What 
was the first land discovered? What did he afterwards discover? What were these 
islands denominated ? What were the aborigines called? — 12. During; the voyage, 
what happened? While the slorrn continued, what did Columbus? Where did lie 
arrive? How was he received? — 13. In his third voyage, what did Columbus disco 
rer ? In consequence of false charges, what was done ? 



AMERICA. 283 

lumbus replied, "No, 1 wear these chains in consequence of an 
order from their majesties the rulers of Spain. They will find 
me as obedient in this as in every other injunction. By their 
command I have been confined, and their command alone shall 
set me at liberty." 

14. On his return to Spain, a prisoner and in chains, the voice 
of indignation was heard from men of every rank ; even Ferdinand 
himself, for a season, seemed to feel the blush of shame; he ordered 
the venerable Columbus to be set at liberty, but ungratefully re- 
tained him in Spain until he appointed another person governoi 
of Hispaniola. Such was the reward that the great discoverei 
of the western continent received, for having devised and accom- 
plished one of the noblest enterprises that ever entered into the 
mind of man. Columbus never forgot this unjust and shameful 
treatment; and during the remainder of his life, he carried about 
him the fetters in which he had been bound, as a memorial of the 
ingratitude he had received, and gave orders that they should be 
buried with him in his grave. 

15. But his spirit of enterprise was not subdued. Bent on find 
in£ a passage to India by the west, which had been the leading 
object of his discovery, he undertook a fourth voyage to the new 
world ; during which he examined the coast of Darien, but suffered 
shipwreck on the isle of Jamaica. After having endured a variety 
of sufferings and calamities, occasioned by the mutiny of his men, 
scarcity of provisions, and sickness, he again reached Spain. 
Shortly after his return he died at Valadolia, in the seventieth 
year of his age. His funeral, at the royal expense, was grand and 
imposing; on his tomb was placed the following inscription: " To 
Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world." 

16. Though the world is indebted to Columbus for the dis- 
covery of the Western continent, still the honor of associating 
his name with the country he discovered has unjustly been wrest- 
ed from him. Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence, who 
accompanied Ojeda on a voyage to the New World in 1499, dis- 
covered a part of South America the year after the continent had 
been visited by Columbus. Americas, on his return to Spain, 
published an account of his voyage, and claimed the honor of 
'laving been the first discoverer of the main land; and the conti- 
nent from him gradually received the name of America. 

17. The achievement of Columbus, who first crossed the ex 
pause of the Atlantic, and visited regions hitherto unknown, 
excited throughout Europe a lively spirit of enterprise and adven- 
ture. In 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service 
of Spain, sailed to the western continent, passed the straits in the 
soutnern part of South America, which now bear his name, and 
was the first who entered that vast ocean called by him the Pacific, 

"What reply 'lid Columbus make to the captain? — 14. What is said of him on hi9 
return to Spajn? What did Ferdinand do? What did Columbus do during the re- 
rminder of his life ?— 15. What did he undertake? What did he suflW? "When and 
where di.l he die? What inscription is placed on his tomb? — 16. From whom did 
the coiritry receive tne name of America? On his return to Spain, what did he 

Sublish : -17 What did :hu achievement of Columbus excit3? In 1519, what was 
one? 



284 AMERICA. 

from the calmness of its waters. Magellan lost Iiis life in one 
of the Philippine islands, yet his officers proceeded on their voy- 
age, and for the first time accomplished the circumnavigation of 
the globe. 

18. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, under a commission from 
Ilchry VII. of England, accompanied by his son Sebastian, sailed 
on a voyage of discovery in 1497, and discovered the continent 
of North America, a year before the main land of South America 
had been reached by Columbus. On the 20th of November, 1497, 
Vasco de Gama, employed by the king of Portugal, for the first 
time doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and in the following May 
arrived at Calicut on the coast of Malabar. By this he effected 
what had been the leading object of Columbus in all his enter- 
prises, and what, in the preceding age, had been the great object 
of investigation, namely, to find a more expeditious and conve- 
nient mode of passage to the East Indies than through Egypt. 

19.- Cabot having proceeded on his voyage to the north in quest 
of a passage to India, without being able to effect his object, re- 
turned and sailed along the coast as far as Florida, erected 
crosses at various points as he passed, and took possession of the 
country in the name of the crown of England. This was the 
foundation of the English claim to North America. 

20. Several years had now elapsed since the discovery ot 
America by Columbus, and no permanent settlement was yet 
made upon the continent. At an early period after the arrival 
of the Spaniards, they had been apprised of the existence of the 
rich and powerful empire of Mexico. The Governor of Cuba 
having conceived the design of subjugating it to the power of 
Spain, fitted out a small fleet for that purpose, and placed it 
jnder the command of Fernando Cortex. On the 10th of January, 
1519, Cortez sailed from Cuba with eleven small vessels, having 
on board six hundred men, sixteen horses, six pieces of artillery, 
and a few muskets. Having reached the continent, he caused 
himself to be proclaimed independent of the Governor of Cuba, 
(who had already revoked the commission intrusted to him,) and 
accountable to none but the monarch of Spain. 

21. He then laid the foundation of the colony of Vera Cruz, 
and the better to inspire his troops in their arduous undertaking, 
by cutting off all hope of returning, he caused the vessels to be 
burnt on the coast. Cortez now proceeded rapidly on his march 
to the capital of the Mexican empire, which he finally reached 
after encountering innumerable difficulties. He entered the city 
under the assumed quality of ambassador of the Spanish monarch, 
and was cordially received by the emperor Montezuma, who 
assigned him one of the royal palaces as a place of residence 
during his stay. 

Where did Magellan lose his life -19. What did John Cabot do 7 Who first dou&Ied 
the Cape of Good Hope ? What was effected by this ?— 19. What laid the foundation 
of the English claim in North America? — 20. At an early period, of what had the 
Spaniards been apprised? What designs did the governor of Cuba form? When did 
Cortez sail, and with what number of vessels ? What did he cause himself?— 21. WLat 
did he then dc ? Where did he proceed ? 11 v did he enter the city ? 



AMERICA. 285 

22. In the mean time an attack was made upon the Spanish 
colony al. Vet a Cruz by one of the Mexican generals. Cortez, 
on receiving intelligence of this transaction, taking with him a 
small band of resolute men, went to the palace of the emperor, 
seized the person of Montezuma, and compelled him to return 
with him to his residence. The Mexicans, roused by this breach 
of hospitality, flew to arms, and, after many sanguinary contests, 
the Spaniards were compelled to leave the capital. On one 
occasion, as Montezuma appeared on the rampart, in order to 
quell a sedition among the citizens, the unhappy monarcji was 
killed by a stone thrown by one of the assailants ; he was imme- 
diately succeeded by his brother, Qiietlavaca. 

23. But no reverse of fortune could intimidate the courage or 
abate the ardor of the enterprising Cortez. Having obtained the 
assistance of a nation of Indians, who were tributary to the sove- 
reign of Mexico, and being reinforced by a body of Spaniards, he 
again presented himself before the city, which was accordingly 
taken after a siege of seventeen days. Gualimozin, who. had 
succeeded Quetlavaca, endeavored to escape with his family and 
court, but was intercepted and taken prisoner before he could 
effect his design. 

24. The Spaniards, who were greatly disappointed in the 
amount of treasure they expected to find in the city, in order to 
discover them, resolved to put the unfortunate monarch and his 
chief minister to the rack. The prince bore his sufferings with 
incredible constancy, and hearing his minister complain, he turned 
to him and said : 4 ' And myself, am I on a bed of roses?" He 
was liberated from the hands of the soldiery through the influence 
of Cortez, but was afterwards put to death on a charge of treason 
and conspiracy, during the year 1523. Thus was the great, em- 
pire of Mexico overthrown, and reduced to a Spanish province by 
a few bold and daring adventurers. 

25. Shortly after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, a similar 
expedition was undertaken against the rich and powerful empire 
of Pent, by Francis Pizarro, who sailed from Panama in 1525, 
and began to explore the shores of the Pacific. His enterprise 
was for some time impeded by a variety of causes ; but in 1531, 
having obtained from Charles V. of Spain a commission as gover 
nor ot the country, and a small force to enable him to conquer it, 
he continued his adventures, and advanced into the very heart 
of Peru, then an extensive empire, governed by sovereigns styled 
Incas. 

26. The country at that time was divided into two hostile 
parties, by the two sons of the late monarch, who disputed the 
succession to the throne. JUaballpa, the younger, was finally 
successful, having defeated his brother in battle and taken him 



22. In the mean time what took place? On receiving this intelligence, what did 
Cortez do? What is ?aid of the Mexicans? What was the fate of Montezuma? — 
23. What did'Cortez again do? What is said of Guatimozin? — 24. What did the 
Spaniards do? What is said of the prince ? What was his fale ? — 25. After this what 
similar expedition was undertaken? In 1531, having obtained a commission &.& go- 
vernor, what did he do ? — 20. How was the country at that time divided ? 



286 AMERICA. 

prisoner, he ordered him to be put to death. Both princes had 
previously endeavored to gain the assistance of the strangers, a cir- 
cumstance which Pizarro did not fail to render subservient to his 
views. Marching to meet Mtabalipa, under the cover of friendship, 
ne suddenly attacked the army of the unsuspecting monarch ; four 
thousand of the Peruvians were slain, and Atabalipa himself fell 
into the hands of the Spaniards. The unhappy monarch, in order 
to procure his release, engaged to fill the room in which he was 
confined, measuring twenty-two feet in length and seventeen in' 
breadth, with vessels of gold and silver, as high as he could reach. 
The contract was fulfill -id on the part of the Peruvian sovereign, 
yet he did not obtain Ms liberty, but being brought to trial on I 
charge of treason, and as the murderer of his brother and the 
usurper of his crown, he was put to death. 

27. The entire country now submitted to the conquerors, who, 
for the better security, laid the foundation of the city 'of Limn, a 
short distance from the sea. The Peruvian monarchy being thus 
overthrown, discord began to prevail among the conquerors, and 
violent contentions ensued. Jllmagro, the rival of Pizarro, was 
taken prisoner, condemned and executed, and shortly afterwards 
Pizarro himself was assassinated. After his death the civil feuds 
continued until the year 1548, when the disasters which had so 
long desolated Peru were terminated, and the country reduced 
to a Spanish province by the wise and prudent measures of Pedro 
de la Gasca, who had been appointed governor. 

28. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Mexicans 
and Peruvians had made considerable advances towards civiliza- 
tion. Their many magnificent palaces, temples, and pyramids, 
prove that they carried architecture to a high degree of perfection. 
They understood the arts of sculpture, mining, and working the 
precious metals; agriculture was in a high state of advancement; 
they had a regular system of government and a code of civil and 
religious laws. They worshipped the sun as the supreme deity ; 
but the religion of the Peruvians possessed fey/ of those sangui- 
nary; traits that characterized the Mexicans, who offered human 
victims in sacrifice. In the other parts of America the natives 
had made but little progress in civilization. The following are a 
few of the characteristics that distinguish the Indians of North 
America, except the empire of Mexico. 

i 29. In person, the Indians were tall, straight, and well propor- 
tioned. Their complexion was of red, or copper color; their 
eyes weie dark, their hair black, long and coarse. They are 
quick of apprehension, and not wanting in genius. When pro- 
voked to anger they are sullen and reserved; but when deter- 
mined on revenge, no danger can deter them, or absence cool 

What had both princes endeavored to obtain? Marching to meet Atabalipa, what 
did Pizarro do? What did the monarch engage to do to procure his release? What 
was his fate?— 27. What is now said of the country? What prevailed? What was 
the fate of Almagrc and Pizarro ? In 1543, what took place ?— 23. At the time of the 
Invasion, what is said of the Mexicans and Peruvians ? What did they understand .' 
What did ihey worship? What is said of the religion of the Peruvians? — 29 Wiaf 
were the Indians m person? Their complexion? When provoked to anger? W.ien 
japtured? 



AMERICA. 28*7 

{heir resentment. When captured by an enemy they nevei ask 
for life, or betray the least signs of fear. 

30. They had no books at the time they were liist visited, or 
'any written literature, except rude hieroglyphics. Education, 
among them, was confined to the arts of war, hunting, and fish- 
ing. Their language was rude, but sonorous, metaphorical and 
energetic. Their arts and manufactures were confined chiefly to 
the construction of the wigwam, bows and arrows, ornaments of 

'various kinds, stone hatchets, and weaving a kind of coarse mat 
'from bark or hemp. Their agriculture was very limited, and the 
articles they cultivated consisted of corn, beans, peas, potatoes, 
melons, &c. Their skill in medicine was confined to a few sim- 
ple prescriptions, but the diseases to which they were subject 
were tew compared with those which prevail in civilized society 

31. The employments of the men were principally hunting, 
fishing, and war; the women dressed the food, tilled the fields, 
and performed nearly all the drudgery, besides attending to their 
domestic concerns. Their domestic utensils consisted of a hatchet 
of stone, and a few shells which they used as knives. With these 
ihey scalped their enemies, dressed their game, &c. Money 
among the Indians was called Wampum, and consisted of small 
beads wrought from shells. War was the favorite employment 
of the aborigines of North America. When they fought in the 
open plain, they rushed to the attack with the utmost fury, at the 
same time uttering the frightful war-whoop. If peace was con- 
cluded, the chiefs ratified the treaty by smoking, in succession, 
the Calumet or pipe of peace. 

32. Their government was an absolute monarchy; the will of 
the chief being regarded as the law, although in matters of mo- 
ment, he consulted his counsellors, but his own decision was final. 
The religion of the natives consisted of traditions, mingled with 
many superstitions. Like the Hindoos, and some of the ancient 
nations, they believed in the existence of two gods; the one 
good, who was superior, and whom they styled the Great Spirit ; 
and the other evil, who was thought to be inferior in power. They 
worshipped them both, and of both they made images of stone, to 
which they paid religious homage. They; also entertained some 
confused ideas of future rewards and punishments. Their chief 
mode of worship was to sing and dance around a large fire, to 
which they added prayer, and sometimes they offered in sacrifice 
a kind of sweet-scented powder, blood and tobacco. 

33. Marriage among them was, in general, a temporary con- 
tract 5 the men chose their wives agreeably to their fancy, and 
could put them away at pleasure ; but generally, the contracts 
were observed with much fidelity. Polygamy was prevalent 
among them. Their treatment of their wives was cruel and op 
pressive; they were considered as slaves, and treated as such. 

00 What is said of books? Their language? Their arts? Their agriculture! 
Thp.ir skill in medicine?— 31. What were the employments of the men ? Of the wo- 
men? What were their domestic utensils? What was war?— 32. What wn3 their 
government? The religion of the natives? In what did they believe ? What was 
their chief mode of worship ?— 33. What was marriage among them? What was 
prevalent ? How did thev treat their wives ? 



288 AMERICA. 

The rites of burial among Indians differed but little throughout 
the continent. They generally made an opening in the ground, 
at the bottom of which the corpse, wrapped in skins or mats, w&s 
deposited. The arms and ornaments of the deceased were buried 
with them, and a mound of earth raised over the grave. 

34. The origin of Indians inhabiting the country on the arrival 
of the Europeans, has long been a subject of investigation, and 
as yet, the matter remains undecided. The best supported opinion 
is, that at some unknown period, they emigrated from the north- 
eastern part of Asia to the northern coast of North America. 
This may be probable, as Behring's Straits, separating the two 
continents, is only about forty miles wide, a much shorter dis- 
tance than the Indians are known to sail in their canoes; this 
strait is frequently frozen over, hence they may have crossed on 
the. ice 



SECTION II. 

Settlement of Virginia and New York. 

1. The French were among the first adventurers in the West- 
ern continent. As early as the year 1504, they had visited the 
banks of Newfoundland, and in 1524, Francis I. of France, will- 
ino- to share with his neighbors a portion of the New Worfcl com- 
missioned Verrazano on a voyage of discovery. This nevigator 
explored a great part of the shores of North America. About 
ten years after this, James Cartier, under a similar commission 
from the French king, sailed to the new world, entered the gulf 
of St. Lawrence, and took possession of the country in the name 
of his sovereign, and called it New France; this name was sub- 
sequently changed to that of Canada, 

2. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, under a commission from 
Queen Elizabeth, of England, arrived in America, entered Pam- 
lico Sound, and proceeding to Roanoke Island, near the mouth 
of Albemarle Sound, he took possession of the country for the 
crown of England. On his return, he gave so flattering an ac- 
count of the beauty and fertility of the country, that Elizabeth 
bestowed on it the name of Virginia, as a memorial that it had 
been discovered during the reign of a virgin queen. Several at- 
tempts to form a settlement in Virginia were made by Sir Walter 
Raleigh; he despatched several small vessels, under the com 
rnand of Richard Granville, carrying one hundred ar.d eighty 
adventurers, who were landed on the Isle of Roanoke But the 
colonists, deluded by the prospect of finding mines of the pre- 
cious metals, neglected the cultivation of the soil ; they were, in 
consequence, reduced to the utmost distress by famine ; many of 

Describe the rites of burial ?— 34. What has been a subject of investigation? What 
is the best supported opinion? 

1. Who were among the first adventurers ? In 1524, what was done bv Francs I.* 
Who next sailed to the new world ? What was the country called ?— 2. In 1534, who 
arrived in America? On his return what did he give? AVhat is said of his attempts 
to form a settlement ? Of the colonists? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 289 

their number returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, while 
others perished with disease, or were destroyed by the natives. 

3. This unsuccessful attempt withdrew for some time the atten- 
tion of the English from these distant regions. In 1602, however, 
Bartholomew Gosnold sailed from England, and discovered Cape 
Cod, which name he gave it on account of the number of codfish 
caught near it. From this period we find that the spirit of adven- 
ture again revived. In 1606, James I. of England granted let- 
ters patent, an exclusive right or privilege, to the London and 
Plymouth companies, by which they were authorized to possess 
and occupy all the territory lying between the 34th and 45th de- 
grees of north latitude, which at that time was included under 
the common name of Virginia. To the former company was as- 
signed the section of country included between the 41st and 34th 
degree of south latitude, called South Virginia; and to the latter 
that part of the territory lying to the north, called North Vir- 
ginia. 

4. Under this patent, the London company, in 1607, sent out a 
vessel under the command of Captain Newport, carrying one 
hundred and five adventurers. After a tedious voyage of four 
months, they arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, and 
sailed some distance up the Powhatan, now called the James 
River, where they built a fort, and laid the foundation of a town, 
which in honor of their king they called Jamestown. The go- 
vernment of the colony was framed by the London company, and 
was administered by a council of seven persons, with a president 
chosen from among their own number. 

5. The name of the first president was Wing field, but the most 
distinguished person in the council was the celebrated Captain 
John Smith, who, from the active part which he took in the trans- 
actions of the new settlement, has been styled father of the 
colony. The life and actions of this extraordinary man resemble 
the deeds of a hero of romance. In the early part of his life, he 
had the command of a body of cavalry in the Austrian army, and 
during a contest with the Turks, he was taken prisoner, and sent 
as a slave to Constantinople, from which he afterwards obtained 
his release and returned to England. His romantic and enter- 
prising spirit led him to engage in an expedition to the new 
world, and by his superior abilities, the colony was repeatedly 
rescued from the brink of ruin. 

6. Unfortunately for the colonists, they were soon involved in 
hostilities with the natives, whose antipathy to the English was 
occasioned by the cruel treatment they had previously experienced 
from Sir Richard Granville, who burnt an entire Indian village 
and destroyed their corn, in retaliation for their stealing a silvc;r 
cup. The singular adventures of Captain Smith form a conspi- 
cuous portion of the history of the colony. On one occasion, 

3. In 1G02. what took place? In 1600, what was granted by James ? What was 
assigned to the former ? To the latter ? — 4. What did the London company do in 1»»071 
Where did they arrive ? W r hat town did they commence? — 5. Who was the most dis- 
tinguished pel son ? In early life what had he ? — How was ihe antipathy of the natlvet 
to the English occasioned ? Relate the adventures of Captain Smith 1 

25 



290 AMERICAN COLONIES/ 

while exploring the country, he was taken prisoner by a band of 
two hundred Indians ; but charmed, however, with his valor, and 
the various arts which he used to astonish or please them, they 
released him from captivity. After this he was again taken by a 
party of three hundred, who le-d him in triumph to Powhattan, 
their king. The sentence of death was immediately pronounced 
against him, and he was conducted to the place of execution. His 
head was laid upon a stone, and the savages, with uplifted clubs, 
were about to despatch their victim, when Pocahontas, the fa- 
vorite daughter of Powhattan, threw herself between the prisoner 
and the executioners, and by her tears and entreaties prevailed on 
her father to recall the sentence. Her prayers were heard, and 
Smith was set at liberty. 

7. In 1609, Powhattan had concerted measures for the destruc- 
tion of the colony ; but Pocahontas, who had always manifested 
a friendly disposition towards the English, visited Jamestown 
alone, on a dark and stormy night, and disclosed to Captain Smith 
the designs of her father ; the colony was by this means saved 
from destruction. Pocahontas, during a subsequent visit to James- 
town, was there detained, and her father, who was devotedly 
attached to his daughter, concluded a treaty with the English on 
their own terms. Pocahontas was afterwards married, with the 
consent of her father, to a Mr. Kolfe, a young planter of a re- 
spectable family. After their nuptials, which were celebrated with 
great pomp, Rolfe and the princess sailed for England, where she 
was instructed in the Christian religion, and publicly baptized. She 
died at Gravesend, in the twenty-second year of her age, leaving 
one son, from whom are descended some of the most respectable 
families of Virginia. 

8. During the first year the colonists suffered severely from 
want of provisions and from sickness, which in a few months 
carried off half their number ; but by the arrival of new adventu- 
rers, the population of the colony, at the close of the year, 
amounted to about two hundred persons. During the year 1609, 
Captain Smith, in consequence of an injury he received by the ac- 
cidental explosion of gunpowder, was obliged to return to Eng- 
land for medical aid. His absence was a severe loss to the colony. 
In consequence of a waste of provisions, a most distressing 
famine followed ; the period was long known by the name of the 
starving times. So dreadful was its effect, that in the space of 
six months, their number was reduced from nearly five hundred 
to sixty. The small remnant that survived, were so disheartened 
by these disasters that they resolved to abandon the settlement, 
and return to England. From this they were prevented by the 
timely arrival of Lord Delaware, who had been appointed go- 
vernor, with one hundred and fifty men, and a large supply of 
provisions. Through his exertions, they were induced to remain* 

7. In 1609, what was concerted ? How was it prevented ? What is said of Poca- 
hontas on a subsequent visit to Jamestown ? To whom was she married? Where 
did they sail for ? Where did she die?— 8. From what did they suffer? What hap- 
pened during the year 1609 ? In consequence of waste of provisions, what fol- 
lowed ? In six months, to what was the number reduced ? What did they resolve i 
How were they prevented ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 291 

and their number being- increased by new arrivals, the condition 
of the colony soon began to assume a prosperous appearance. 

9. The planters were men generally destitute of families, and had 
emigrated with a prospect of obtaining wealth, and expected 
eventually to return to their native country. But with a view of 
attaching them to the new settlement, and of rendering their resi- 
dence permanent in the colony, an expedient was devised of sup- 
plying them with wives. Accordingly, a number of unmarried 
females were sent over from England, to be sold to such as were 
desirous to purchase. The price of a wife was at first one hun- 
dred pounds of tobacco; but as the number diminished, it was 
raised to one hundred and fifty pounds ; the price of tobacco at 
the time was three shillings a pound. 

10. The year 1620 is rendered memorable for the introduction 
of negro slavery into America. A Dutch vessel from the coast 
of Guinea, sailed up the James river, having on board about 
twenty negroes, who were sold as slaves to the planters of Vir- 
ginia. 

The colony had enjoyed, for some time, a great degree of pros- 
perity. In 1623, however, it experienced a stroke that nearly 
proved fatal to its existence. Powhatan died in 1618, and was 
succeeded by his son, who did not inherit the friendly disposition 
of his father towards the English. A deliberate plan for the an- 
nihilation of the colony atone blow was concerted, and succeeded 
to a fearful extent. On the twenty-second of March, while the 
colonists were engaged in their usual occupations, the Indians fell 
upon them, sparing neither age nor sex, and in one fatal hour 
three hundred and forty-seven persons fell victims to their 
cruelty. 

11. This treachery of the Indians was followed by a war of ex- 
termination; during which the colonists indulged in acts of atro- 
city, little inferior to those by which they had been visited. They 
fell upon the Indians at the approach of harvest, when they knew 
the attack would prove most fatal, destroyed their crops of corn, 
and, in their fury, murdered all who came in their way, or drove 
them into the forest, where so many perished with hunger, that 
some of the tribes nearest to the colony were totally extirpated. 

12. In 1624, the London Company, which had been so active 
in establishing a settlement in Virginia, was dissolved by an ar- 
bitrary act of king James I., who invested the government of the 
colony in the crown, and appointed a governor, with a council of 
twelve persons, to aid him in the administration. The prosperity 
of the colony was subsequently retarded during the arbitrary ad- 
ministration of Sir John Harvey ; but in 1639, Sir William 
Berkley, a man of superior abilities, was appointed governor, 
when it again began to flourish. During the revolution in Eng- 
land, which terminated in the execution of Charles, the colonists 

9. What were the planters ? With a view of attaching them to the settlement, what 
expedient was devised? What was the price of a wife?— 10. For what is the year 
1620 rendered memorable? In what manner? In 1623, what deliberate plan was 
formed 7 What took place on the 22d of March?— 11. By what was this followed? 
When did they fall upon the Indians?— 12. In 1624, what took place? How was the 
prosperity of the colony again retarded? 



292 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

preserved their loyalty to the king. In 1651, the commonwealth 
under Cromwell, took vigorous measures for the reduction of th« 
colony. Berkley made a spirited resistance ; but being obliged 
to yield to a superior force, he retired from public life, and 
Mathews was appointed governor by Cromwell. 

13. On the death of Mathews, the spirit of opposition was again 
manifested ; the colonists threw off their allegiance to the com- 
monwealth, recalled Berkley from his retirement, erected the 
royal standard, and proclaimed Charles II., son of the late king, 
as their lawful sovereign. Fortunately for the colonists, the re- 
storation of Charles, which shortly afterwards took place, preserved 
them from the chastisement to which their previous declaration 
in his favor had exposed them. In 1676, towards the close of 
Berkley's administration, the restriction imposed on trade by the 
king, occasioned considerable discontent in the colony, and finally 
gave rise to an insurrection, known by the name of Bacon's Re- 
bellion, so called from the name of its leader. During the pro- 
gress of this unfortunate insurrection, the country was given up 
to pillage, Jamestown was burnt, and all the horrors of civil war 
continued to rage, until they were terminated by the death of 
Bacon. 

14. The territory now comprising the Middle States of the 
Union, was originally settled by the Dutch and Swedes. In 1609, 
Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the East India 
Company of Holland, on a voyage in search of a north-west pas- 
sage to India, touched at Long Island, and sailed up the river 
which now bears his name. The right of discovery being thus 
acquired, and the favorable report of the country, induced a com- 
pany of Dutch adventurers to attempt a settlement on the Hudson 
river about the year 1613. They built a fort near the present site 
of Albany, called Fort Orange, and another with some few trad- 
ing houses on Manhattan Island, where the city of New York 
now stands, and styled the latter settlement, New Amsterdam, 
while the whole country was called New Netherlands. 

15. The Swedes had already made a settlement on the Dela- 
ware river, and held possession of the territory until its final sub- 
jugation by the Dutch colonists of New Netherlands, under their 
enterprising governor, Stuyvesant. The extension of the New 
England settlements occasioned a series of disputes and contests 
with their neighbors in New Netherlands. In 1664, Charles II., 
who had been restored to the throne of his father, forgetful of the 
friends who had given him a shelter during his exile, sought every 
pretext for a dispute with Holland. Among other things, he as- 
serted a claim to the colony possessed by that country in America, 
and accordingly conveyed it to his brother, the Duke of Fork. 
The duke made immediate preparations for carrying the king's 

During the revolution in England, what is said of the colonists? In 1G51. what tool; 
place? — 13. On the death of Mathews, what did the colonists do ? In 1676, what did 
the restrictions on trade occasion and give rise? How was it terminated?— 14. By 
whom was the territory comprising the Middle States settled ? In 1609, what look place '! 
Where did ihey huild a fort? What did they call the settlements ?— 15. Whc-e had 
'.he Swedes settled ? In 1CG4, what did Charles do ? What did he claim, and to wham 
did he convey it ? What did the Duke of York do ? What is said of Stuyvesant? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 293 

grant into effect, and for that purpose Colonel Nichols was sent 
out with a fleet, having on board a considerable force. After 
touching at Boston, he sailed for New Amsterdam, and anchoring 
before the place, he demanded its surrender. Stuyvesant, the 
governor, after some opposition, was obliged to yield to the Eng- 
lish ; and the whole territory thus became subject to the British 
ci own, and the country, in honor of the duke, was called New 
York. 



SECTION III. 

New England Settlements. 

1. In 1607, about the same time that the colony in Virginia 
laid the foundation of Jamestown, a settlement was commenced 
on the Kennebec river, under the direction of the Plymouth com- 
pany : but owing to successive misfortunes, the settlement was 
abandoned for the present. In 1614, the country was again 
visited by Captain Smith, so celebrated in the history of Virginia, 
who examined the coast from the Penobscot river to Cape Cod, 
and on his return, prepared a map of the country, to which he 
gave the name of New England. 

2. In 1620, a patent was granted by king James I., to Ferdi 
nando Gorges and others, called the council of Plymouth, for the 
purpose of settling a colony in New England. Their patent in- 
cluded all the territory between the fortieth and forty-eighth de- 
grees of north latitucle. During the same year in which the 
patent was obtained, the first permanent settlement in New Eng- 
land was commenced at Plymouth, by a body of Puritans, also 
known by the name of Brownists, from the name of the founder 
of their sect. 

3. The Puritans, who had suffered continual persecution in Eng- 
land, on account of their dissent from the tenets of the established 
church, had taken refuge in Holland, under the charge of their 
minister, Mr. John Robinson ; but not finding their new residence 
agreeable, from various causes, they resolved to seek an asylum 
from oppression by removing to the wilds of America. After 
having experienced many delays and disappointments, a patent 
vas obtained under the seal of the London Company, assigning 
to them a tract of land within the limits of the Virginia charter. 

4. On the morning of the 22d of July, 1620, Mr. Robinson, 
their minister, kneeling in prayer on the sea-shore at Delfthaven, 
consecrated the embarcation of the Pilgrims. They touched 
at Southampton, in England, from which place they sailed on the 
fifth of August ; but before proceeding far they were obliged to 
return, in order to repair the smaller of their vessels, called the 

1 In 1607, where was a settlement commenced ? By whom was the country visited 
in 1614 ? On his return, what did lie do ?— 2. In 1G20, w not was granted ? During the 
same year, what was commenced at Plymouth ?— 3. Where had the Puritans taken 
refuge? What did they resolve ?— 4. On the twenty-second of July 1 620, what took 
place? Where did they touch ? What were they finally compelled to uo ? 

25* 



294 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

Speedwell, which they were finally compelled to abandon, and to 
prosecute their voyage in the Mayflower. At length, on the sixth 
of September, they sailed from Plymouth, in England, for the 
Hudson river : but by t he treachery of the captain, who is sup- 
posed to have been bribed by the Dutch, they were carried much 
Further to the north, and after a stormy passage, they came ia 
sight of Cape Cod. 

5. After some weeks spent in searching for a suitable place to 
land, during which they were exposed to incredible sufferings 
from the inclemency of the season, the Mayflower was safety 
moored in a beautiful harbor, to which, in grateful remembrance 
of the last port they left in England, they gave the name of Ply 
mouth. On the morning of the 20th of December, 1620, after 
imploring the divine assistance, the Pilgrims, to the number of 
one hundred and one, landed upon the rock of Plymouth. The 
spot on which their first steps rested is still held in deep venera- 
tion by their descendants, and the day of their landing is yet 
celebrated with great enthusiasm. 

6. Though the Pilgrims had succeeded in landing, their suffer- 
ings and distress were only about to commence. After a long 
ami tedious voyage, they found themselves cast upon an unknown 
and hostile coast; exposed to all the rigors of a New England 
winter, without a roof to shelter them from the storm. Their 
supply of* provisions was limited, and to fill up the measure of 
their sufferings, they were visited by a distressing sickness. By 
these united calamities, in three months after their landing, they 
were reduced to near one-half of their original number. John 
Carver, the first governor, died in March, and William Bradford 
was chosen to succeed him. The election of the governor took 
place annually, and at first he had but one assistant; the number 
was afterwards increased to five, and at length to seven. 

7. With a desire to conform to the simplicity of the apostolic 
time, the Pilgrims at first held all their property in common 
This was one of the causes of scarcity that for some time pre- 
vailed in the country. In the spring of 1623, each family was 
allowed a piece of ground for its cultivation, and after the harvest 
of that year, no general want of provisions was experienced 
For the defense of the colony against the hostilities of the natives, 
a military organization was formed, and Captain Miles Standish, 
a man of considerable courage, was appointed to the command. 
In March, 1621, they received a friendly visit from Samoset, die 
chief of the Wampanoags, who gave them a cordial welcome, 
and in the name of his tribe allowed them to retain possession of 
the soil which they occupied, since there was not one of the ori- 
ginal possessors then living to claim it. 

8. From him they obtained important information respecting 
the country, and learned that a short time previous to their ar- 

When and from what place did they sail? — 5. Where was the Mayflower moored^ 
On the LH)th of December, what was done? What is said of the spot?— 6. What is said 
Df the pilgrims? Of their supply of provisions ? By these calamities, to what were 
they reduced ? Who was their first governor ?— 7. With a desire to conform, fcc, 
what did the pilgrims do ? In 1G23, what was each family allowed? In March, 16*^1 
what d'd 'hey receive?— -3 From him wh»i did they obtain ? 



AMERICAN COLONICS. 295 

rival, a dreadful pestilence had carried off almost all the Indians 
in the vicinity. In the same month, Massasoit, the most power- 
ful chief in that region, and from whom the name of Massachu- 
setts is derived, paid a visit to the colony, and entered into a 
league of friendship with the settlers, which was strictly observed 
for upwards of fifty years. 

9. The colony increased but slowly, and at the end of ten 
years the population did not exceed three hundred. In 1028,the 
colony of Massachusetts Bay was commenced by a company ot 
adventurers under John Endicott, who formed a settlement at 
iVawnkeag, to which he gave the scripture name of Salem. It 
might readily be supposed, that the men who had bled under the 
lash of persecution for their religious opinions, would have learned 
to respect these opinions in others. While we commend that noble 
spirit which enabled them to quit their native soil, and brave a 
thousand dangers in a hostile land, in order that they might enjoy 
the unrestrained exercise of their religious principles, we cannot 
refrain from disavowing that spirit ot intolerance which they exer- 
cised among themselves. 

10. Some of the colonists retained a high veneration for the 
ritual of the church of England, and refusing to conform to the 
colonial establishment, they assembled to a separate place of wor- 
ship. Endicott called before him two of the principal offenders 
and sentenced them to banishment; they were accordingly sent 
home by the first vessel returning to England. In 1630, another 
company of adventurers, over fifteen hundred in number, under 
John Winthrop, who was appointed governor, arrived in Massa- 
chusetts and commenced the settlement of Charlestown, Boston, 
and other places in that vicinity. At the first general court held 
at Charlestown, a law was passed, declaring that none should be free, 
or have any share in the government, except those who had been 
received as members of the church. 

11. In the spring of 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire 
was commenced at Dover and Portsmouth, by persons sent out 
under the patronage of Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason, to 
whom the country had been granted. These settlements were 
united to Massachusetts in 1641, and remained a part of that 
colony until 1678, when New Hampshire obtained a separate go- 
vernment. In 1635, the colony of Connecticut was commenced 
by a few families, with their favorite minister Mr. Hooker, who 
left Massachusetts, and after a fatiguing march through the wilder- 
ness, settled on the west side of the Connecticut river, and laid 
the foundation of Windsor and Wetherslield. 

12. Roger Williams, a minister at Salem, having been banished 
from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, with a 
few companions commenced the settlement of Rhode Island, on 
the site where the city of Providence now stands, which name 

In the same month who paid a visit to the colony ? — 9. In 1G28, what colony was 
commenced? What might be supposed? — 10. What did some of the colonists retain? 
What did Endicott do? In 1G30, what took place? At the first general court at 
Charlestown, what law was passed? — 11 In 1623, what settlement was commenced* 
Ry whom? When and by whom was Connecticut commenced?— 12. What is re'ated 
of Roger Williams ? 



296 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

they gave to the place, in grateful acknowledgment of the Divine 
protection. About two years alter this. Mr. Coddington, having 
been also banished from Massachusetts, with seventy-six others, 
for holding opinions which were deemed erroneous by the colonial 
establishment, purchased from the Indians, Aquelneck, a fertile 
island in Narraganset Bay, and named it Rhode Island, under 
which title the previous settlement by Roger Williams was after- 
wards included. 

13. In 1644, Williams visited England as agent of the settlers, 
and obtained from the British parliament, shortly after the com- 
mencement of the civil war, a free charter of incorporation fo? 
Providence and Rhode Island plantations. The charter was con 
firmed and its constitutional powers enlarged in the reign of 
Charles II. By this instrument it was ordered, " that none were 
to be molested for any difference of opinion in matters of reli- 
gion ;" yet the very first assembly, convened under its authority, 
excluded the Roman Catholics from voting at elections, and from 
every office in the government. 

14. The friendly intercourse which had for some time existed 
between the colonists and the natives, began gradually to be in- 
terrupted. The Indians in the vicinity of Massachusetts Bay 
were few and unwarlike, and having received a stipulated com- 
pensation for the land from the early settlers, they evinced no 
disposition for hostility ; but Connecticut and Rhode Island had 
to contend with numerous and powerful tribes. Among these, 
the Narragansets and Pequods were the most formidable. The 
Jatter having sent a deputation to their neighbors the Narragan- 
sets, requested them to forget for a season their mutual animosi- 
ties, and co-operate in expelling the common enemy from the 
country : but the former considering this as a favorable oppor- 
tunity for weakening or totally destroying a powerful rival, dis- 
covered their hostile intentions to the governor of Massachusetts, 
and united in alliance with the colonists against them. 

15. The Pequods had pitched their camp in the middle of a 
swamp, near the head of Mystic river, and fortified it with pali- 
sades; but the colonists, under Captain Mason, marched to the 
place unperceived, and were about to enter the camp through a 
pass, which, by some unaccountable neglect was left open, when 
the alarm of their approach was given by a faithful do<*. In a 
moment the warriors flew to arms and prepared to »epel the at- 
tack; but in a few moments more the wigwams in which the 
Indians slept were enveloped in flames. Dreadful was the car 
nage that now ensued. Aroused from their slumbers by the dis- 
charge of musketry, the affrighted Indians rushed in consternation 
from their burning tenements. As they came forth they were 
received by the swords of the enemy; if they attempted to escape 
by scaling the palisades they were met by a shower of balls. 

Two vears after this, what did Mr. Coddington do ?— 13. In 1644, what did Williams 
do and obtain? By this instrument, what was ordered ? Ytt what was done by the 
first assembly?— 14. What is said of the Indians in the vicinity? Which were the 
most formidable tribes? What did the latter request? What did the former do?— 
15. Where had the Pequods pitched their camp? What did the colonists do? De« 
scribe the scene that followed 



AMERICAN COLONIES 297 

Many afraid to venture out perished in the flames; while others, 
recoiling from the deadly weapons of the foe, rushed back into 
the devouring element and shared the fate of their^ companions. 
"In a few minutes, live or six hundred lay gasping in their blood 
or were silent in the arms of death." Those that were captured, 
above the number of two hundred, were either sold as slave9 
abroad or reduced to servitude by the English at home. So com- 
plete was the extermination, that in a few months the nation of 
requods was entirely destroyed, even their very name was no 
longer heard. 

ill. The clanger to which they were exposed by the encroach- 
ments of foreign enemies and domestic hostilities, induced the 
four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and 
New Haven, to enter into an alliance for their mutual defence, 
under the title of the United Colonies of New England, A. D 
1643. This confederation, which was regulated by two delegates 
from each colony, subsisted with but little alteration until their 
charters were annulled by Charles II. As many of the early 
settlers were men of talents and education, they gave their earliest 
attention to the interest of learning and to the establishment of 
schools. In 1638, a few years after the settlement of Massachu- 
setts, Harvard University, the oldest seminary of learning in the 
country, was founded at Cambridge. 

17. Although the colonists possessed many excellent traits of 
character, they were not, however, without their faults. While 
they claim our admiration for their enterprise, for their love of 
liberty and attention to the interests of education, we are com- 
pelled to regard their misguided zeal in matters of" religion with 
mingled feelings of sorrow and disapprobation. In 1656, a num- 
ber of Quakers, flying from persecution at home, sought an asylum 
among their Christian brethren in New England ; but the novelty 
of their mode of worship greatly offended the ministers of the 
established church; they were accordingly imprisoned and sent 
oft by the first opportunity. A law was then passed prohibiting 
the emigration of Quakers to Massachusetts; forbidding their 
return, in case of banishment, under the penalty of death. In 
consequence of these severe proscriptions, several of these unof 
fenduig people were hanged. 

18. In Connecticut the Quakers were treated with little less 
seventy. A law was passed against them, subjecting the offender 
to imprisonment at hard labor, and the tongue to be pierced 
through with a red-hot iron. These instances of intolerance, 
which have cast a blot upon the memory of our forefathers, are 
not cited to wound the feelings of their descendants, but simply 
to remind them that it is their duty to avoid the repetition of these 
errors; that ; t is incumbent on all to discountenance religious in- 
tolerance in every form, in every age and in every clime; that the 

What was done with those who were captured ? — 16. What did their danger induce 
the colonist to do? How lor.? did this confederation subsist? To what did they give 
their earliest attention? When was Harvard University founded ?— 17. WMle they 
?laim our admiration, what are we compe'led? In 1656, what took place? WhaS 
law was passed?— 18. In Connecticut, wh»* law was passed? Why tre these in* 
nances ot" intolerance mentioned? 



298 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

same ascendency that then prevailed over the civil authorities 
might even now plunge society into that unhappy state, which we 
are called to contemplate with so much regret. 

19. After the termination of" the Pequod war, the New England 
settlements enjoyed a long continuance of peace, during which 
they greatly increased in wealth and population. The treatment, 
however, which the natives had generally received from the early 
adventurers, had given them great reason to regard the Europeans 
with an eye of jealousy and distrust ; and it must be confessed 

, that the colonists, in their proceedings with regard to the natives, 
were often directed by principles of cruelty and injustice, as a 
reference to the records of those times will clearly prove. In 
1675, the peace which long subsisted was interrupted, and the 
colonists found themselves involved in a destructive war with 
Philip, king of the Wampanoags, whose principal residence was 
at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. 

20. Philip, equally eminent for his warlike character and un- 
daunted courage, was the most formidable enemy ever encountered 
by the colonists. Having spent four years in maturing the plan 
of an extensive conspiracy which had for its object the utter ex- 
termination of the English, he commenced hostilities, and by means 
of his alliances was able to bring four thousand warriors into the 
field. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth united against 
him. The war was commenced with great energy and spirit ( n 
both sides, and for some time conducted with equal success. In 
the great battle known by the name of the Swamp Fight, two 
hundred and thirty of the colonists were killed, while one thousand 
of the Indian warriors are supposed to have perished and over five 
hundred of their wigwams were burned. At length an end was 
put to these disasters in 1676, by the death of Philip, who was 
shot by one of his own men who had joined a party of the English 
under the famous Captain Benjamin Church. 

21. At the commencement of this distressing war, the English 
population amounted to nearly sixty thousand persons, of whom 
six hundred had fallen in battle during the conflict, besides a 
much greater number of women and children who were led into 
a miserable captivity by the Indians. Scarcely a family or indi- 
vidual remained who had not to mourn the loss of a relative or 
friend. After the termination of this conflict, however, the New 
England colonies were freed from the hostilities of the natives 
until the war with the French, who employed the savages as 
auxiliaries. 

22. About the year 1692, the people of the colonies were thrown 
into the utmost consternation, by the extraordinary imaginary 
power of witchcraft. A Mr. Mather, a minister of New England, 
who was a firm believer in all these ridiculous stories, relates a 
number of these supernatural events, which at the present time 
are more amusing than interesting. Several laws were made 

19. Afttr the Pequod war, what did New England enjoy ? In 1675 what took place ? 
—20 What is said 01 Philip ? How was the war conducted ? How many fell on both 
sides in the Swamp Fight ? What was the end of Philip ?— 21. At the commencement 
of the war, what is said of the English ? What had every family to mourn ?— 22. What 
took place in 1692 ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 299 

against witchcraft, arid not until twenty persons of both sexes 
had been executed, did the frenzy begin to cease. 

23. Maryland. The founder of Maryland was Sir George Cal- 
vert, Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, who was distinguished 
as a statesman, and had held the office of secretary of state in the. 
reign of James I. of England. With a view of forming in Ame- 
rica an asylum for himself and his persecuted brethren, he sailed 
to Virginia about the year 1631; but meeting an unwelcome recep- 
tion there on account of his religion, he fixed his attention upon 

: a territory beyond the Potomac, and finding it unoccupied and 
well adapted to his purpose, he immediately returned to England 
and obtained of Charles I. a grant of the land. From Henrietta 
Maria, the consort of Charles, the country was called Mary- 
land. 

24. Before the patent was completed, Sir George died, and the 
grant was transferred to his eldest son, Cecilius Calvert, who 

I inherited the titles of his father. Preparations were immediately 
made for the settlement of a colony. Remaining in England 
himself, Cecilius Calvert appointed his brother Leonard as gover- 
nor of the intended settlement. On the 22d of November, in the 
; year 1633, emigrants to the number of about two hundred set 
l sail from the Isle of Wight, in two small vessels, the Jirk and 
I Dove, and after a tedious passage arrived in March of the follow- 
! ing year on the shores of the Chesapeake. Following the exam- 
ple of Columbus, they immediately erected a cross and returned 
thanks to God, who had conducted the voyage to so happy an 
issue, and then took possession of the country in the name of their 
sovereign. After having purchased the land from the natives, 
they commenced the building of the town of St. Mary, which for 
many years remained the capital of the colony. 

25. The leading features of policy adopted by the founders of 
this colony, claim our warmest admiration. Their intercourse 
with the Indian tribes was marked by the strictest equity and 
humanity; at the same time the unrestrained exercise in matters 
of religion, granted to the professors of every creed, reflects the 
highest honor upon the memory of Lord Baltimore and his bene- 
volent associates. Whilst the Episcopalians in Virginia would 
suffer no other form of worship among them, except that of the 
Church of England, and whilst the Puritans of New England 
punished with fines, tortures, and exile, all those who differed 
From their creed, the Roman Catholics of Maryland, transcend- 
ing the proscriptive principles of the age, extended their arms, 
and invited among them the victims ot intolerance from every 
clime.* 

* Bancroft, in hits History of America, vol. I., p. 268, speakint, of Maryland, says: 
"Its history is the history of benevolence, gratitude, and tolerafccr.. TLe Roman 

What laws were made? — 23. Who was the founder of Maryland? Whv did ho 
remove to America? Where did he next fix his attention? From whom was the 
country named?— 24. "What happened before the patent was complete? Who whs 
appointed governor? When and where did they sail from? What were the names 
of the vessels? What did they immediately do? — 25. What claim our admiration? 
What reflects the highest honor on Lord 'Baltimore, &c.? Wha» did the Roman 
Catholics of Maryland do'' 



300 • AMERICAN COLONIES, 

26. The tranquillity of the colony was for some time interrupted 
by the intrigues of Clayborne, who finally supplanted the proprie- 
tor, and compelled him to retire from the settlement. The very 
first act of those who succeeded in the government, was to strike 
out the fairest feature in the original constitution of the colony, 
namely, religious toleration, and to enact the severest penalties 
against the professors of every creed at variance with that of the 
Church of England. Thus the Roman Catholics were doomed to 
see themselves deprived of the free exercise of their religion, 
within the limits of that colony in which they had labored to 
establish free toleration, and that too by the very persons to whom 
their benevolence had granted an asylum and home. After seve- 
ral years of disorder, the authority of the proprietor was restored, 
and the province began to assume its usual prosperity. 

27. Pennsylvania, in 1681, tne settlement ot Fennsyjvania 
was commenced under the direction of the celebrated William 
Perm, after whom the state is named. This eminent man was 
the son of Admiral Penn, who served in the British navy during 
the protectorate of Cromwell, and during a part of the reign of 
Charles II. In early life he embraced the tenets of Quakers or 
Friends, and shared largely of the persecution which was carried 
on in England against them, being repeatedly harassed by fines 
and imprisonment. Roused at length by these unjust and into- 
lerant proceedings, Penn resolved to seek in the New World an 
asylum from the oppression of the Old. Accordingly he applied 
to Charles II., from whom he obtained the grant of a large tract 
of country, including the present state of Pennsylvania, in con 
sideration of a debt due from the crown to his father. 

28. The first colony arrived in the country in 1681, and be^an 
a settlement above the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill 
rivers. In the month of October of the following year, Penn 
arrived in the colony, accompanied by two thousand associates, 
chiefly of the denomination of the Friends or Quakers, and during 
the next year laid out the plan for the city of Philadelphia. Penn's 
first care after his arrival, was to conciliate the friendship of the 
Indians; accordingly, having assembled a council, he obtained 
possession of the land by a fair purchase, giving them in exchange 
such European goods as were useful to them, and entered into a 
solemn treaty with them, which was inviolably observed for a 
period of seventy years. 

29. His system of government was established on the most 
humane and liberal principles. After the example of Lord Balti- 
more, he made civil and religious liberty the basis of all his insti- 

Catholics who were oppressed by the laws of England, were sure to find a rc'.ccfhl 
asylum in the quiet harbors of the Chesapeake, and there, too, Protestants were shel- 
tered from Protestant intolerance." 



26. How was the tranquillity of the colony interrupted ? What was the first act ot 
those who succeeded in the government? What were the Catholics dwxmed. to see?-— 
27. When and by whom was the settlement of Pennsylvania commenced)? What is 
said of him? What did Penn resolve?— 2S. When and where did the first colony 
arrive:? When did Penr. arrive? What city did he lay out* \Ytut was he first 
care 7 -29 What is» eaid of his system of government 7 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 301 

tufions, and to these wise regulations may be attributed the rapid 
advancement of Pennsylvania in population, enterprise, and im- 
portance. In addition to the territory included in the grant 
which he obtained from Charles, Penn became the proprietor of a 
tract of land, the present state of Delaware, which he obtained 
by purchase from the Duke of York. Haying several times visited 
England, he at length died at London in 1718, having reached 
the age of seventy-five years. 

30. Delaware was first settled in 1627, by a company of Swedes 
and Finns, who, having arrived in the country, purchased fron 
the natives the land from Cape Henlopen to the falls of the Dela- 
ware, and commenced a settlement at the mouth of Christiana 
creek, near Wilmington, and called the country New Sweden. 
But their empire was not destined to^ be of long duration. In 
1651, the Dutch in the neighboring colony of New Netherlands, 
who had always regarded the Swedish settlement with an eye of 
jealousy, under their governor, Peter Stnyvesant, invaded New 
Sweden, and reduced the colony to complete subjection. When 
the English afterwards conquered New York, they also obtained 
Delaware, which was considered a part of that territory. 

31. New Jersey was first settled by Hollanders and Swedes. 
When New York was ceded by Charles II. to his brother, the 
Duke of York, all the territory between the- Hudson and Dela- 
ware rivers was included in the grant. The tract, comprising the 
present state of New Jersey, he sold to Lord Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret. In 1674, Lord Berkeley disposed of his share 
of New Jersey to two English Quakers, named Fenwicke and 
Byllinge; and in the year 1682 William Penn and eleven others 
of the Society of Friends, became the proprietors of the remainder 
of the province, which they purchased from Sir George Carteret. 
The first governor was the celebrated Robert Barclay, the author 
of the " Apology for the Quakers," whose administration was for 

32. The Carolinas. The next provinces that claim our atten- 
tion are North and South Carolina. Towards the middle of the 
seventeenth century, a considerable number of persons, suffering 
in Virginia from religious intolerance, removed beyond the limits 
of that colony, and commenced a settlement in a portion of 
country north of Albemarle Sound, and shortly afterwards an- 
other company of adventurers from Massachusetts settled near 
Cape Fear. In 1863, Charles II. granted to Lord Clarendon 
and others the entire tract of land lying between the thirty-first 
and thirty-sixth degree of north latitude, and extending from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. 

33. The proprietors endeavored to hasten the settlement of this 
extensive region by establishing a liberal government, allowing 
perfect freedom in religion, and by offering a portion of land for 

Of what aid Pcnn become the proprietor ? Where and when did he die ?— 30. "When 
and by whom was Delaware settled? In 1G51 what took place?— 31. By whom was 
New Jersey settled ? In 1674 what did Lord Berkeley do ? Who afterwards became 
the proprietors? — 32. What provinces next claim our nttention? Towards the middle 
of the seventeenth century what was done? In 1G63 what d d Charles grant?— 
33. What did the proprietors do? 

26 



302 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

the first five years at a half-penny per acre. They afterwards 
extended their settlements to the banks of the Ashley and Cooper 
rivers, where Charleston now stands \ and in 1739 the title of the 
land was sold to the crown, after which the country was divided 
into North and South Carolina, and a royal governor appointed 
over each. During the year 1700 the growth of cotton was intro 
duced, and two years later that of rice, which articles have subse 
quently become the prominent staples of those provinces. 

34. Georgia. _ The last settled of the thirteen original states 
that revolted against Great Britain was Georgia, which received 
its name from George II. In 1732 one hundred and sixteen per- 
sons embarked from England under General Oglethorpe, and 
arrived at Charleston early in the following year. From Charles- 
ton they sailed to their destined territory, and shortly after their 
arrival they laid the foundation of the city of Savannah. For 
several years after the settlement was commenced, the colony 
remained in a languishing state, but after the surrender of its 
charter to the crown, it began to flourish. 

35. In the year 1736 the celebrated John Wesley arrived in 
Georgia, and commenced his missionary labors among the colo- 
nists and Indians, but. not meeting with the desired success, he 
returned again to England. Oglethorpe was distinguished as a 
soldier and a statesman. At an early age he served on the con- 
tinent of Europe under the celebrated Prince Eugene, until the 
return of peace ; and on his return to England he was elected a 
member of the British parliament. At the commencement of the 
American Revolution he was offered the command of the British 
army, which high office he thought proper to decline. He died 
shortly after the contest was decided, at the advanced age oi 
ninety-seven years. 



SECTION IV. 

The French tear; Conquest of Canada; the Oppressive Mea 
sures of Great Britain towards the Colonies ; Commencement 
of Hostilities ; Battle of Lexington ; Bunker Hill , Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

1 . We have seen that the French made settlements in Canada, 
at Quebec, on the banks of the St. Lawrence, about the same 
time that the English colony at Jamestown was commenced in 
Virginia. Besides the possession oi Canada in the north, France 
had also a territory on the Mississippi, in the south, called 
Louisiana. The boundary between the English and French 
colonies had long been a subject of dispute and unavailing nego 
tiation. It had been for some time a favorite object on the part 

In 1739 what was done? What was introduced in 1700?— 34. Which was the last 
Of the thirteen states? AVhen and by wh' m was the settlement commenced? Of 
what city did they lay the foundation? — 35. In the year 1736 who arrived? What is 
Said of Oglethorpe? AVhen did he die? 

1. Where had the French made settlenrents? What had long been a subject of 
iispute ? Win t was the object of the French ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 303 

of France to connect her distant possessions, by erecting forts 
aiong the Ohio and the lakes, and thus to restrict the British to a 
limited territory on the sea-coast. 

2. This proceeding on the part of France alarmed the British 
and called forth the most decisive measures. Repeated com- 
plaints of violence having been made to the governor of Virginia, 
ne determined to send a messenger to the French commander at 
Fort Da Quesne, on the Ohio, where Pittsburg now stands, to 
demand the reasons of his hostile conduct, and to insist that he 
should evacuate the* fort. The choice of a person to perform this 
arduous undertaking fell upon George Washington, the future 
deliverer of his country, then a youth in the twenty-first year of 
his age. Having received his instructions from the governor, he 
departed on his perilous journey to the French settlement, at. a 
distance of near four hundred miles, one-half of the route being 
through a wilderness inhabited by hostile savages. On the way, 
his horse failing, he proceeded on foot, accompanied by a single 
companion, with a gun in his hand and a pack on his shoulders. 
On the 12th of December he reached the French fort, delivered 
his message to the commander, and by the middle of January re- 
turned in safety with an answer to the governor of Virginia. 

3. The reply not proving satisfactory, the organization of a 
regiment was immediately commenced in Virginia, to support the 
claims of Great Britain over the disputed territory. Of this regi- 
ment, Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and young Washington 
lieutenant-colonel; but on the death of Mr. Fry, which happened 
shortly after his appointment, the command devolved on Wash- 
ington. Without delay Washington marched forward at the 
head of a small force to dislodge the French from Fort Du 
Quesne, situated at the confluence of the Allegheny andMonon- 
gahela rivers. But before he reached the place he was informed 
that the garrison had been strongly reinforced, and that a body 
of nine hundred French were advancing against him : he there- 
fore thought it prudent to fall back to a fort which he had pre- 
viously thrown up ; but before he had time to complete his defense 
fte was attacked by the French general, I)e Villier, and after 
making a brave resistance, he was compelled to yield on honor- 
able terms of capitulation. 

4. In the year 1755, General Braddock arrived in Virginia 
with two regiments, and after being joined by the provincials, 
under Washington, his forces amounted to twenty thousand men. 
Braddock was brave, but inexperienced as to the mode of Indian 
warfare. Washington, who acted as his aid : de-camp, asked 
permission to go forward and scour the woods with the provincial 
troops under Ins command; but Braddock, despising this prudent 
advice, pushed forward incautiously, and when within a few 

S. Wr.at did the jro\ernor of Virginia determine? Whom did lie select? What was 
the distance? On"his way what happened? When did he reach thefoit?— 3. After 
this, what was immediately commenced ? Of this regiment, who was appointed colo- 
nel? Where did Washington march ? What was he informed before l.e reached tho 
place? What did he do ?— 4. In 1755, who arrived? What is said of Braddock , 
What did Washington ask ? What did Braddock do? 



304 AMERICAN COLONIES 

miles of Fort Du Quesne, he fell into an ambuscade of French 
and Indians. The invisible enemy commenced a heavy dis- 
charge of musketry upon his unprotected troops; the van was 
forced back upon the main body, and the whole army thrown into 
disorder. A dreadful slaughter now ensued. Braddock did 
all that a brave general could do to encourage his men to stand 
the assault; but valor was unavailing. After an action of three 
hours, seven hundred of the English were left dead upon the field, 
and Braddock himself, after having three horses shot under him, 
fell mortally wounded; Washington had two horses killed under 
him, and four bullets passed through his coat, yet he escaped un- 
injured. The provincial troops under his command preserved 
their order, and covered the retreat of the regulars, who broke 
their ranks and could not be rallied. 

5. Three successive campaigns produced nothing but expense 
and disappointment to the British government. The lakes and 
the whole western and northern border were in possession of the 
French and Indians. With an inferior force they had maintained 
a superiority, and even extended their encroachments. In 1756, 
a change was effected in the British ministry, and William Pitt 
(afterwards Lord Chatham) was raised to the head of the adminis- 
tration. From this moment affairs began to assume a new aspect. 
The active and enterprising genius of Pitt seemed to diffuse itself 
through every department of the state. He addressed a circular 
to tlio colonies in America, assuring them that an effectual force 
should be sent from England, and called on them to furnish as 
large a force as their population would permit. The number of 
men brought into the field at the next campaign amounted to 
fifty thousand, of which twenty thousand were raised in the 
colonies. 

6. The first expedition was directed against Louisburg, which, 
after an obstinate resistance, surrendered with a garrison consist- 
ing of nearly six thousand men. Ticonderoga and Crown Point 
next fell into the hands of the English. Niagara was besieged, 
and after a severe action, also surrendered. But a far more 
important and more dangerous enterprise remained yet to be 
accomplished. The city of Quebec, a place strongly fortified 
by nature and art, the capital of the French dominions in America, 
was protected by a garrison of ten thousand men, under the able 
and experienced General Montcalm. The arduous duty of re 
ducing the place was committed to the heroic general Wolfe, 

7. Having landed his army, consisting of eight thousand men, 
on the island of Orleans, below Quebec, he made an unsuccessful 
attempt to reduce the city. Not discouraged by this failure, Wolfe 
conceived the design of ascending, during the night, a steep and 
craggy precipice, to an eminence on the north bmk of the river 
called the Heights of Abraham. This enterprise he effected with in- 

What was his fate ? "What is said of Washington ? — 5. "What did three campaign* 
produce ? In 1756 what took place ? What did he address ? AVhat was the number of 
men at the next campaign ? — 6. What was the first expedition? What places were 
aken ? What is said of Quebec ? To w..om was the duty of reducing it committed 
*~7 What design did Wolfe conceive ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 305 

credible labor, before Montcalm had the slightest intimation of 
his design, and by sun-rise the following morning, his whole 
army was arrayed on the plains above. A sanguinary battle 
ensued, in which the French were entirely defeated, with a loss 
of fifteen hundred men, among whom were numbered four of 
their principal officers, who fell in the action. But while the 
French were called to mourn the loss of their brave general Mont- 
calrn^ the British were compelled to lament the death of the heroic 
fPo/fe, who fell in the moment of victory. This illustrious man 
having received a mortal wound, was carried to the rear of the 
army, where he caused himself to be raised that he might view the 
engagement. Faint with the loss of blood, he had reclined his 
head upon the arm of an officer, when he was roused by the cry: 
" They fly, they fly ! " " Who fly ?" exclaimed the dying general. 
Being told that it was the enemy, he replied, " I die contented," 
and immediately expired. The sentiments of Montcalm in the 
moments of death, are equally remarkable. Being told that he 
could not survive more than a few hours, he replied, " It is so 
much the better, I shall not then live to see the surrender of 
Quebec." This important battle was followed by the reduction 
of the city, and subsequently by that of all Canada; so that of all 
the territories claimed by France in America, New Orleans, 
and a few plantations on the Mississippi, alone remained in her 
possession, A. D. 1763. 

8. Never had the attachment of the colonies to the mother 
country been more strongly manifested than during the French 
war, which had terminated so advantageously to England. The 
colonists felt proud of their descent and connexion with one of 
the most powerful nations of Europe. The peculiar circum- 
stances in which the early settlers had been placed, led them to 
study with more than usual care the principles of political liberty, 
and to view with a jealous eye every encroachment of power. 
What degree of authority the parent country might exercise over 
the colonies, had never been defined. In England, the doc- 
trine, prevailed, that parliament had the power to bend them 
in all cases whatever; a principle which, in America, had been 
publicly denied. 

9. The expenses attending the recent war had rendered it 
necessary to increase the usual taxes of the English nation ; but 
the ministry, apprehensive of rendering themselves unpopular by 
too severely pressing on the resources of the people at home, de- 
termined to raise a revenue from the colonies in America. In 
1765, Mr. Grenviile, the commissioner of the treasury, introduced 
the famous Stamp Met, by which all instruments of writing, such 
as law documents, deeds, leases, wills, &c, were to be null and 
void, unless on stamped paper, on which a duty was to be paid. 
The bill passed the house after a long and animated discussion. 

What ensued ? What was the less of the French ? What was the fate of Wolfe ? 
What is related of him before his death ? What is said of Montcalm ? What followed 
the reduction of this eity? — 8. What is said of the attachment of the colonies ? Of what 
were thty proud? In England, what doctrine prevailed ?— 9. What dni the expenses 
render necessary ? What is said of the ministry? In 1765, what was introduced* 
What was the uV-ure of this act? 

26* 



306 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

10. The news of this measure created the greatest sensation 
among the colonists. They remonstrated against it. but in vain, 
the act went into execution during the following year. The as- 
sembly of Virginia was in session when the intelligence arrived \ 
a number of resolutions were immediately brought forward by 
the patriotic Patrick Henry, in opposition to the act. Massachu- 
setts also declared herself opposed to it, and in all the colonies, 
a determined spirit of resistance to the oppressive measure was 
strongly manifested. When the news of the Stamp Jict reached 
Boston, the bells were muffled, and rung a funeral peal; the 
crown officers were treated with insult, and, in some instances, 
the houses were broken open or demolished. In the city of New 
York, the act was carried through the streets with a death's head 
affixed to it, bearing this inscription : " The folly of England, and 
the ruin of America." 

11. A Colonial Congress met at New York, and published 
a declaration of their rights, insisting particularly on the exclusive 
right of taxing themselves, and loudly complaining of the Stamp 
Act. The merchants of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, 
entered into a combination, and passed a resolution not to import 
or sell British goods until the offensive measure should be re- 
pealed. So great and spirited was the opposition of the colonies, 
that the Stamp Act, through the exertions of Mr. Pitt, Lord 
Camden, and others, was repealed in the spring of 1768; but the 
repeal was accompanied with a declaration that the British par- 
liament had the power to enforce upon the colonies any measure 
it might think proper ; and in accordance with this principle, an 
act was passed during the following year, 1767, imposing a duty 
on tea, paper, glass, and painters' colors. This act was followed 
by another most arbitrary declaration, that all offenders in Mas- 
sachusetts should be sent to England for trial, and in order to 
carry these measures into effect, two British regiments were sent 
over, and quartered in Boston. 

12. The feelings of the citizens were highly exasperated to see 
themselves beset by an insolent soldiery, sent over with the de- 
sign of intimidating them into compliance with the arbitrary acts 
ot the British parliament. Frequent disputes occurred between 
them and the soldiers, and on the fifth of March, 1770, a collision 
took place between a detachment of troops under Captain Pres- 
ton, and the inhabitants of Boston, which resulted in the death of 
three of the latter, while five more were dangerously wounded 
Captain Preston and the soldiers were brought to trial, and ac- 
quitted, except two, who were convicted of manslaughter. 

13. Lord North succeeded to the Duke of Grafton, as prime 
minister of England, in 1770, when all the duties were re- 
pealed, with the exception of the one imposing three pence 
per pound on tea. Things continued in this state of partia . 

10. What did the news of tins measure create? In the Assembly of Virginia, wh 
was done? And in Boston? In the city of New York?— II. What did the Coloni 
Congress publish? What did the merchants of Boston, &c, do ? When was the Stamp 
Act repealed ? In 1767. what was passed ? By what was this followed? — 12. What 
frequently occurred? On the fifth of March, 1790, what happened?— 13. Bywhou 
fc-a.3 the Duke of GraftoT succeeded? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 307 

irritation until the year 1773, when the British East India Com- 
pany were authorized to export their tea to the colonies Tree of 
duty. The inhabitants of New York and Philadelphia prevented 
the landing of the tea ships sent to these cities, but the people of 
Boston shewed their resentment in a different manner ; a party 
of men disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels, and threw the 
tea, consisting of three hundred and forty-two chests, into the 
harbor. 

14. Nothing could exceed the indignation of parliament when the 
news of this transaction reached England. An act was immedi- 
ately passed, by which the port of Boston was closed, and the go- 
vernment and officers transferred to Salem, A. D. 1774. 

In May of the same year, General Gage, who had been ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in North Ameri- 
ca, arrived in Boston ; and was shortly followed by two regiments 
more, with artillery and military stores. 

By these proceedings, the Americans very justly concluded 
that it was the object of the British government to reduce them 
to obedience by force of arms ; that the hour of reconciliation was 
passed ; that their rights could only be maintained by an appeal to 
force ; therefore, without delay, they began to prepare themselves 
for the contest. 

15. An agreement was entered into by many of the most dis- 
tinguished men of Massachusetts, called a" Solemn League and 
Covenant," by which they determined to suspend all intercourse 
with Great Britain, until their rightsshould be restored. A regular 
enlistment of soldiers was commenced, and live general ofhcers 
were appointed. The general court of Massachusetts resolved that 
a congress of the colonies should be called ; accordingly, on the 
fifth of September, delegates from all the colonies except Georgia 
met at Philadelphia. This body, generally known by the name 
of the Continental Congress, of which Peyton Randolph of Vir 
ginia was the first president, consisted of fifty-five members. 
They published a declaration of the colonies, agreed to suspend 
all intercourse with Great Britain ; and drew up an address to 
the king, another to the people of England, and a third to the 
colonies. 

16. When the proceedings of the Continental Congress were 
laid before the parliament, an address was presented to the king, 
declaring that Massachusetts was in a state of rebellion, and re- 
questing that effectual means might be taken to suppress it. Ac- 
cordingly, during the winter and spring of 1775, the number of 
royal troops in Boston were increased to ten thousand, a force 
deemed sufficient for that purpose. In February, General Gage 
despatched a body of troops to Salem, to take possession of some 
pieces of cannon, but they were disappointed of their object; the 

What took place in 1773? How did the people of Boston show their resentment? 
-14. What act was immediately passed ? In May of the same year, who arrived _n 
Boston ? By these proceedings, what did the Americans conclude ? — 15. What agree- 
ment was entered into ? What was commenced ? What did the Court of Massachu- 
setts resolve ? By what name is this body known ? Who was Hie first President? 
What did they do? — 16. What was done when the proceedings of Congress were J8ud 
ocfore Farliamert? In Fc >ruary, what die General Gage do ? 



308 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

cannon having been removed through the precaution of the pro- 
vincials, who had received intimation of their design. 

17. In April, Gage sent another body of troops under ColoneE 
Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the military stores which 
had been collected at Concord, about twenty miles distant from 
Boston. On the morning of the nineteenth of April, as they 
passed through Lexington, they were met by a party of militia, 
to the number of about seventy, who had assembled on the green 
for the purpose of opposing their progress. Major Pitcairn, 
riding up, called out to them to disperse ; but not being obeyed, he 
discharged his pistol, and ordered his men to lire. Eight of the 
Americans were killed, and several wounded. Thus was shed 
the first blood in that memorable contest, which finally resulted 
in securing the liberty, and establishing the Independence of 
America. 

18. The royal troops after this, proceeded to Concord, and de« 
stroyed some military stores collected in the town. The British 
commander then attempted to cut oft* the approach of the Ameri- 
cans from the neighborhood by destroying or occupying the 
bridges. Accordingly a small force was sent to take possession 
of a bridge over Concord river, but being attacked by the Ameri- 
cans, who were desirous of keeping open a communication with 
the town, a smart action took place, which terminated in the re- 
treat of the British, with a loss of several killed and wounded. 
Hastily burying their dead in the public square, the British troops 
commenced their march, or rather their retreat towards Boston, 
In the mean time, the people of the neighborhood flew to arms, 
and attacked the retreating troops on every side ; an incessant 
fire was kept up from behind trees, walls, and rocks, until they 
reached Lexington, where they were joined by a reinforcement, 
which secured their retreat to Boston, after sustaining a loss of 
sixty-five killed, and one hundred and eighty wounded. The 
Americans lost fifty killed and thirty-four wounded. 

19. From the first appearance of the approaching contest, the 
Americans were anxious that when an attack should be made, the 
British should be the aggressors. In this they were gratified by 
the affair at Lexington, which was now considered as a signal for 
Hostilities. The forts, magazines, and arsenals, within the limits 
of the colonies, were instantly secured for the use of the Ameri- 
cans. Congress, on hearing what had taken place at Lexington, 
immediately passed a resolution for raising an army of thirty 
thousand men in New England ; and in a. short time a considera- 
ble force was collected in the vicinity of Boston. The first expe- 
dition was directed against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which 
were taken by surprise. Towards the end of May, a considera 
ble reinforcement of British troops arrived at Boston, undei the 

17. In April, what took place ? On the nineteenth, by whom were they met? Wh : 
did Major Pitcairn do ? How many of the Americans were killed? — 18. What did the 
British commander attempt to do ? What took place at the bridge over Concord river 1 
What did the British do? How many were killed on both sides ?— 19. For what were 
the Americans anxious ? What did Congress immediately ? What was the first ex- 
pedition ? In May, what arrived lr Boston ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 309 

command of Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, officers of 
high reputation. 

20. For the purpose of annoying, or, if possible, to drive the 
British from Boston, a detachment of one thousand men, under 
the command of Colonel Prescotr, was ordered to throw up a 
breastwork on Hunker Hill, but by some mistake they took pos- 
session of Breed's Hill, an eminence much nearer Boston. Moving 
silently to the spot on the evening of the sixteenth of June, they 
prosecuted their design with so much expedition, that by the re- 
turn of day they had nearly completed an intrench ment of ten 
rods square. At the break of day their operations being dis- 
covered, a brisk cannonade was commenced from a vessel lying 
in the harbor, against the works of the Americans, without being 
able to retard their progress. During the morning, Colonel Pres- 
cott received a reinforcement of live hundred men. About noon, a 
detachment of two thousand men, under the command of General 
Howe, were sent to drive the Americans from their intrench- 
ments. A severe engagement followed; during which the British 

ere twice repulsed with dreadful slaughter 5 but from the failure 
of the ammunition of the Americans, they finally succeeded in car- 
rying the fortifications, after sustaining a loss of one thousand and 
fifty-four in killed and wounded. The loss on the part of the 
Americans amounted to four hundred and fifty-three ; but among 
the slain they had to number the much lamented and patriotic 
Major-general Warren, who had hastened as a volunteer to the 
field of battle. While the British were advancing to the attack, 
Charlestown was ordered to be set on fire, and in a few hours, 
the whole town, consisting of four hundred houses, was laid in 
ashes. 

21. The Congress, then in session in Philadelphia, resolved on 
immediate measures of defense ; they began the organization of 
a continental army, selected George Washington a member of 
their body from Virginia, as commander-in-chief, and made the 
appointment of subordinate officers under him. With much diffi- 
dence, General Washington received the appointment, but with- 
out delay entered immediately on the duties of his office, and by 
the second of July, joined the army at Cambridge. 

22. With a view of guarding the frontiers, a plan was devised 
for the invasion of Canada, and, if possible, to reduce the country 
fn pursuance of this object, a body of troops under Schuyler and 
Montgomery were sent to that province ; but the former having 
returned to treat with the Indians, was prevented by sickness 
from again joining the army. The chief command therefore de- 
volved upon Montgomery, who having taken Fort Chamblee, St. 
John's, and the city of Montreal, which surrendered without re- 
sistance, he pursued his victories to the very walls of Quebec. 
Colonel Arnold was sent with a reinforcement of one thousand 

20. For the purpose of driving the British from Boston, what was done? How did 
they prosecute their design? At noon, what took place? What followed ? What was 
the loss of the British ? Of the Americans ? What city was se ~n fire?— 2t. What did 
Congress resolve ? Who was selected as commander-in-chief ? When and where did 
hejoin the army ?— 22. AVhat plan was devised? Who was sent to that province? 
AVual places did Montgomery take ? 



310 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

men to join Montgomery, and after a fatiguing march through 
the wilderness, during which his troops were exposed to incredi- 
ble suffering, he reached Quebec in November. After remaining 
before the city for some time, without the slightest prospect of 
being able to take it by a siege, they resolved to attempt it by an 
assault. Accordingly, on the last day of December, they made 
an attack upon the city in three separate divisions, which, how- 
ever, proved unsuccessful, and fatal to the brave Montgomery, 
who fell in the act of scaling the wails. 

23. Early in the following spring, the Americans being obliged 
to relinquish their design of reducing Canada, evacuated the 
country. About this time the nourishing town of Norfolk wa9 
wantonly burnt by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor 
of Virginia; and Falmouth, a town in the province of Maine, 
shared the same fate, being laid in ashes by order of the British 
admiral. In October, General Gage having embarked for Eng- 
land, the command of the British forces devolved on Sir William 
Howe. 

24. During the summer and autumn of 1775, the army under 
General Washington, amounting in number to near fifteen thou- 
sand men, remained inactive for want of suitable arms and am- 
munition; but early in the following spring, an effort was made 
to dislodge the British from Boston. On the night of the fourth 
of March, a battery was erected with much secrecy and despatch, 
on Dorchester Heights, a situation that completely commanded 
the city. Unable to remove the Americans from their position, 
General Howe deemed it expedient to evacuate the town ; accord- 
ingly, on the seventeenth of March, he embarked his troops for 
Halifax, and General Washington on the same day entered the 
city in triumph, amidst the jovous acclamations of the inhabitants, 

25. Early in the ensuing summer, a small armament under the 
command of Sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops, under Gene- 
ral Clinton, made an attack on Charleston, the capital of South 
Carolina ; but after a violent assault upon the fort on Sullivan's 
Island, from which they were repulsed with considerable loss, 
the enterprise was abandoned. "When the news of the battle of 
Bunker Mil reached England, it filled all minds with surprise 
and astonishment. Lord Chatham, Burke, and Fox, endeavored, 
but in vain, to produce a change in the measures of the govern- 
ment. The ministry blindly persisted in their plans, and obtained 
an act of parliament, authorizing them to employ sixteen thou- 
sand mercenary troops from the Landgrave of Hesse and die 
Duke of Brunswick. All trade and intercourse with the colonies 
were prohibited, and their property on the high seas was declared 
forfeited to those who should capture it. 

26. At the commencement of the controversy, the Americans 
had contended only for their rights as British subjects, but these 

By whom was he }oined? What did they resolve ? What was the result?— 23. 
About this time what town was burnt ? In October, what happened?— 24. During the 
Bummer of 1775, what is said of the army ? On the fourth of March, what was done ? 
On the seventeenth, what did General Howe do ?— 25. By whom was an attack made on 
Charleston? What is said of Chatham, Burke, and Fox? What did the rnimstrv 
obtain ? 



UNITED STATES. 311 

hostile measures induced them to assume a loftier position 
Seeing there was no alternative left, but that of absolute freedom, 
or unconditional submission, they determined to sever entirely 
those ties that bound them to the mother country, and assert their 
, independence. On the seventh of June, a motion was made in 
Congress by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, and seconded by 
JoJm Adams of Massachusetts, for declaring the colonies free 
and independent; and at the same time, a committee, consisting 
of Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston, were 
appointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence, which was 
finally adopted after a full discussion, by a vote almost unani- 
mous, on the memorable fourth of July, 1776. [See Declara- 
tion in Appendix.~] 



UNITED STATES. 

SECTION V. 

The war of the Revolution continued. 

1. During the second Continental Congress, ihe provinces 
which had united against the oppressive measures of Great Britain, 
received the appellation of the United Colonies, but in the Decla- 
ration of Independence, they were styled the United States of 
America; hence, from this period, the history of the United 
States should probably commence. 

The first important battle that took place after the Declaration 
of Independence, was that of Long Island. In June General 
Howe arrived off Sandy Hook, where he was shortly afterwards 
joined by his brother Admiral Lord Howe, with a great naval 
armament. General Washington, who knew that the favorite 
object of the British was to get possession of New York, had 
removed to that city with the greater part of his army. 

2. On the 22d of August the British landed on Long Island, 
and on the 27th a severe engagement took place, in which the 
Americans were defeated with a loss of nearly one thousand men. 
The American generals, Sullivan and Lord Stirling, fell into the 
hands of the British, whose loss was estimated at about four hun- 
dred men. During the engagement, General Washington had 
hastened from New York with reinforcements, to the scene of" 
action; but considering the inequality of numbers, it was thought 
expedient to evacuate the island, which was accordingly effected 
on the night of the 28th of the same month, with so much silence 

26. For what had the Americans contended? Seeing no alternative left, what d;d 
they determine ? On the seventh of June, what was done in Congress? "Who were 
appointed en the committee to prepare the Declaration? 

1. Why should the history of the United States commence from this period ? Where 
did the first battle take place after the Declaration? — 2. When did the British land! 
What followed on the 27th? During the engagement, what did General Washington 
do?. 



312 UNITED STATES. 

and order, that the British army, although not more than a quar- 
ter of a mile distant, had no intimation of their design until the 
Americans, with all their tents and baggage, were safely landed 
in the city of New York. 

3. General Howe, who had been commissioned to settle the 
difficulties with the colonies, thought this a favorable opportunity 
for making proposals for an accommodation. He therefore dis 
patched several letters to General Washington; but as they were 
directed to George Washington, Esq., &c, the commander-in- 
chief refused to receive them unless addressed to him in his pro 
per character. Howe then sent General Sullivan, who had been 
taken prisoner in the battle of Long Island, with a message to 
Congress; and in a few days after this, Dr. Fi'anklin, John 
Adams, and Edward Rutledge were commissioned to hold an 
interview with the British general. They were politely received, 
but no accommodations of peace being effected, they returned to 
Philadelphia. 

4. In September, the city of New York was abandoned by the 
American army, and shortly afterwards occupied by the British 
Washington, with a part of his army, had retiredto White Plains, 
where, on the 28th of October, a severe though indecisive action 
took place, with a loss of several hundred on both sides; and 
shortly afterwards, Fort Washington, on the Hudson, was re- 
duced by General Howe, and its garrison, consisting of two thou- 
sand men, was captured. General Washington now retired to 
Newark; from thence he passed through New Brunswick, Prince- 
ton, Trenton, and finally crossed over to the Pennsylvania side 
of the Delaware, being so closely pursued by the British under 
Lord Cornwallis, that the rear of the one army was often in sight 
of the van of the other. 

5. The affairs of the Americans at this crisis bore the most 
gloomy appearance. The army under General Washington, re- 
duced by the loss of men in killed, wounded and prisoners, by 
the desertion of some, and the departure of others whose term ot 
enlistment had expired, amounted to only about three thousand; 
and of this number, many were without shoes or clothing suitable 
to screen them from the inclemency of the season. To add to 
these disasters, General Lee had been taken prisoner at Basken- 
ridge, and Rhode Island fell into the hands of the British. 

6. It was at this critical moment, when despair had pervaded 
almost every breast, that the expiring hopes of the nation were 
roused by a daring exploit of General Washington. On the night 
of the 25th of December he crossed the Delaware on the ice, 
surprised the enemy at Trenton and took the whole body, con- 
sisting of about one thousand Hessian troops under the command 
of Colonel Rahl, who was slain. He then proceeded to Prince- 
ton, and on the 3d of January, 1777, defeated a party of the Bri- 

3. What did Howe tnink? What did he send to General "Washington? Whom did 
he send with a message to Congress? What followed?— 4. What, was done in Sep- 
tember? What look place al White Plains? What fort was shortly afterwards re- 
duced ? What course did Washington take ?— 5. IJy what was the army under Wash- 
.ngton reduced ? Wnere was Lee made prisoner ?— G. On the 25th of December, wft«l 
did General Washington do? Where did he then proceed? 



UNITKD STATES. 313 

tish, who lost about one hundred men, ana compelled (lie remain- 
der, about three hundred in number, to surrender themselves 
prisoners. In this action the Americans lost General Mercer, of 
Virginia, a brave and experienced officer. During the latter part 
of the year 1776, Congress had manifested the greatest energy. 
Measures were adopted for increasing the army, and Dr. Frank- 
lin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane, commissioned to Europe to 
solicit the aid and alliance of foreign powers. 

7. During the spring of 1777, Governor Try on was sent to 
destroy stores at Danbury in Connecticut; the design was exe- 
cuted and the town partly burnt; the British on their return 
were severely harassed by the Connecticut militia under General 
Wooster, who was unfortunately killed on the occasion. It had 
been long the object of General Howe to get possession of Phila- 
delphia; for this purpose he embarked his troops, amounting to 
about sixteen thousand men, at Staten Island, entered the Che- 
sapeake Bay, and landing near the head of Elk river, commenced 
his march towards that city. General Washington perceiving 
his object, hastened to oppose his progress with a much inferior 
force. On the 11th of September, a battle was fought on the 
banks of the Brandywine, in which the Americans were defeated 
with considerable loss. In this battle two eminent foreigners 
served under the American colors, — the Marquis de Lafayette 
of France, and Pulaski of Poland, the former of whom was 
wounded. 

8. After this victory, the British General immediately directed 
his march to Philadelphia, and stationed the principal part of his 
army at Germantown, about seven miles from that city. On the 
4th of October, General Washington attempted to surprise the 
detachment at Germantown, but was repulsed with a loss of 
twelve hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, while 
the loss of the enemy was about half that number. While these 
operations were carried on in the Middle States, more auspicious 
events were taking place in the north. General Burgoyne, who 
commanded the British army in that quarter, took possession of 
Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Americans under 
General St. Clair. But his progress was checked by the defeat 
of Colonel Baum, near Bennington, in Vermont, by a body of 
militia under General Stark. 

9. Burgoyne having collected his forces, crossed the Hudson 
and encamped near Saratoga. General Gates, who had lately 
been appointed to the command of the American army in the 
north, advanced towards the enemy, and on the 19th of Septem- 
ber an obstinate but undecisive engagement took place at Still- 
Water; and shortly after this another severe action occu;red, in 
which the British were defeated and General Fraser kil ed ; the 
American Generals Arnold and Lincoln were wounded. Gcnc- 

/n this action, who was killed? "Who were commissioned to Europe?— 7. What 
was done in the spring of 1777? What was the object of Fowc ? "What course di«: 
he take? On the 11th of September, what look place? In this battle, what foreigner: 
served? — S. After this victory, where did the British proceed? On the 4t!i of October 
vnat took place? What place did Burgoyne take? How was his progress checked ' 
—0. WV;re did Burgoyne encamp? On the 19th of September, what took place? 

27 



314 UNITED STATES. 

ral Burgoyne having made several ineffectual Attempts to retreat, 
and finding his situation growing hourly more critical, called a 
council of war, in which it was resolved to surrender by capitu- 
lation. Accordingly, on the- 17th of October, his whole army, 
amounting to near six thousand men, surrendered to Genera! 
Gates as prisoners of war. 

10. This event diffused universal joy among the Americana, 
and inspired them witli ardor in the cause of freedom. The court 
of France, which had secretly wished success to the cause of the 
United States, was restrained from giving open countenance to 
their agents until after the surrender of Burgoyne. This event 
determined the course of France. A negotiation was immediately 
formed with the American commissioners, and on the 6th ol 
February, 1778, a treaty of alliance, of amity and commerce was 
concluded and signed at Paris. The British ministry, on receiv- 
ing intelligence of the alliance between France and the United Ij 
States, began to hold out terms of reconciliation to the Americans, J 
but the Congress was now too sanguine in the hope of success, 
to listen to any terms short of an acknowledgment of their inde- 
pendence. 

11. In the mean time, General Howe, who had returned to 
England, was succeeded in the chief command by Sir Henry 
Clinton. It was now determined to concentrate the British forces 
in New York; accordingly, Clinton, having evacuated Philadel- 
phia in June, crossed the Delaware, and proceeded on his march 
to that city. But as he retired, he was closely pursued by the 
American army under General Washington, and on the 28th of 
June a severe engagement took place at Monmouth Court-house, 
in which the British were repulsed with a heavy loss, and a sig- 
nal victory must have been obtained, had General Lee obeyed 
his orders. For his misconduct on that day, Lee was suspended 
from duty and never afterwards joined the army. 

12. In July, a French fleet of twelve ships of the line and four 
frigates, under the command of Count d'Estaign, arrived at the 
mouth of the Delaware; but towards the close of the season it 
sailed to the West Indies, without having performed any impor- 
tant service. The last transaction of this year was an expedition 
against Georgia, and on the last day of December the British 
took possession of Savannah. 

13. 1779. During this year the principal theatre ot the war was 
changed from the north to the southern provinces of the country. 
On the 15th of July, a detachment under General ffaynewsiS 
sent to dislodge the British from Stony Point, on the Hudson; 
the expedition was conducted with so much courage and resolu- 
tion, that the whole garrison, to the number of five hundred men, 
surrendered without the loss of a single individual on either side. 

Finding It impossible to retreat, what was resolved? What was done en the 17th 
of October? — 10. What is said of this event? Of the court of France? On the 0th of 
February, what was done? What did the British ministry do? — 11. I!y whom -vas 
Howe succeeded? What was determined.? What did Clinton do? On the '2Sth of 
June, what took place? What is said of General Lee? — 12. In July, what arrived! 
What was the last transaction of this year ?-*-13. During this year, whera was the 
principal theatre of the war ? What was done on the 15th of JulV ' 



UNITED STATES. 315 

In Octcber, General Lincoln and C«unt d'F*taign made an attack 
upon Savannah, but were repulsed with considerable loss. In 
this action the brave and patriotic Pulaski, of Poland, was mor- 
tally wounded. 

14. 1780. On the opening of the campaign of this year, the 
British troops evacuated Rhode Island. An expedition under 
Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis was undertaken against 
Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, which was compelled 
to capitulate after a siege of six months, and the whole garrison, 
consisting of about two thousand live hundred men, together with 
all the adult male inhabitants, were surrendered as prisoners ot 
war. Clinton, leaving four thousand troops under the command 
of Lord Cornwallis, returned to New York. For the purpose of 
subjecting the interior of the province, a considerable force was 
sent to Camden under Lord jRawdon. His troops, however, 
were greatly harassed by small parties of the Americans under 
General Sumpter and other distinguished officers. 

15. General Gates, who had been appointed to the command 
of the southern army in the place of General Lincoln, arrived in 
South Carolina in the latter part of July, and having concentrated 
his forces, prepared to oppose the progress of the British. Lord 
Cornwallis hastened to join Lord Rawdon with reinforcements, and 
on the 16th of August a severe engagement took place between 
the two armies, in which General Gates was defeated with the loss 
of upwards of seven hundred men. In this, Baron Be Kcdb, an 
illustrious Prussian general, then in the American service, bravely 
maintained his position at the head of the regular troops of Mary 
land and Delaware, until overpowered by numbers and almost 
surrounded, he was taken prisoner and died on the following day 
of the wounds he received. In July, 31. de Tcrnay, with a 
French fleet, carrying six thousai.d land forces under Count de 
Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Island. This event gave univer- 
sal joy to the Americans ; but the fleet, leaving the land forces, 
shortly returned again to France. 

16. This year is distinguished for the treachery of Genera* 
Arnold. General Washington, being called to Connecticut on 
business of importance, left the important fortress of West Point 
under the command of Arnold, who had previously distinguished 
himself at the siege of Quebec, and subsequently received a severe 
wound at Saratoga. He afterwards commanded in Philadelphia, 
where his oppressive conduct rendered him subject to a trial by 
court martial, by which he was sentenced to be reprimanded. 
He determined to have revenge; and for this purpose he entered 
into a negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton, to deliver up West 
Point with all its garrison into the hands of the British. 

17. The British agent, through whom the negotiation with 
Arnold was conducted, was the unfortunate Major Andre. Aftei 

And in October? In this action, who was mortally wounded?— 14. What was un 
duriaken by Clinton and Cornwah'is? What was the result? -15. What did General 
KaKjs (Jo? What took place on the 16th of August ? In this battle, what is said ot 
Br.ron De Xalb? In July, what arrived at Rhode Island ?— 1G. For what is this ysur 
d&inguishf'd ? Into what negotiation did he enter ?— 17. Who was the British agent t 



316 UNITED STATES. 

having an interview with the traitor, Andre was on his return to 
New York, with the papers in Arnold's own handwriting con- 
cealed in his boot, when he was detected by three Americans, and 
thus the treacherous designs were fortunately discovered in sea- 
son to prevent their execution. Andre being- convicted as a spy, 
his life was forfeited by the laws of war. He was accordingly 
condemned and executed. His youth and his many amiable 
qualities had endeared him to the officers of the British army, 
while his fate was deeply regretted by all. Arnold escaped to 
the English, and received as the reward of his treason an appoint- 
ment to the office of brigadier-general in the British army. 

18. 1781. The campaign of this year commenced by an expe 
dition under Arnold, who made a descent upon the coast of 
Virginia, and committed extensive depredations. After the de- 
feat of Gates, General Green was appointed to the army in the 
southern department. From this period affairs in that quarter 
began to wear a more favorable aspect. Colonel Tarleton, the 
British commander, was defeated by General Morgan, at the 
battle of the Cow-Pens. The two armies at length, under their 
respective commanders, met near Guilford Court-house, in North 
Carolina, where one of the best contested battles fought during 
the whole war took place. The Americans were obliged to retire 
from the field, yet the British suffered so severe a loss that they 
were unable to pursue the victory. 

19. In September, General Green obtained an important vic- 
tory over the British, under Colonel Stuart, at Eutaw Springs, 
where General Marion particularly distinguished himself, and 
Colonel Washington, a relative of the commander-in-chief, was 
wounded and taken prisoner. After this battle, Lord Cornwallis. 
leaving South Carolina, marched into Virginia, and having col- 
lected his forces, fortified himself at Forktown. General Wash- 
ington, learning the position of Cornwallis, secretly left his camp 
at White Flams, crossed the Hudson with his army, and passing 
rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania, arrived at the 
head of Elk river, where he was joined by a considerable rein- 
forcement under Marquis de Lafayette. 

20. In the mean time, Clinton, who was not apprised of the 
departure of General Washington until it was too late to pursue 
him, sent a detachment of troops under Arnold, the traitor, 
against New London, in Connecticut, which was set on fire and 
burnt to the ground. While Washington was on his march to 
Virginia, he received the cheering intelligence of the arrival of a 
French fleet, consisting of twenty-four ships of the line, under 
Count de Grasse, in the Chesapeake. A British fleet of nineteen 
vessels, under Admiral Graves, soon after appeared off the Capes. 
A slight engagement took place between the two fleets, in which 

Relate the circumstances of Andre's capture. What was his fate ? What became 
rtf Arnold? — IS. Mow was the campaign of this year commenced ? Where and by 
whom was Tar.eton defeated? Where did the two armies again meet? What was 
the result? — 19. In September, what did Green obtain? After this banle. where did 
Cornwallis fortify himself? What did General Washington do ? — 20. In the mean time 
what was done by Clinton ? While Washington was on his march to Virginia, .vha, 
Dews did he receive ? What fleet appenred off the capes ? What took plane ? 



UNITED STATES. 317 

the French had the advantage, and remained in possession of 
the, bay. 

21. A body of French troops was now landed, in order to co- 
operate with the Americans, under General Washington, who by 
this time had embarked his forces and arrived at York-oum. A 
close siege was now commenced, and carried on with so much 
vigor by the united forces of France and America, that Lord 
Eormvallis, on the 19th of October, was compelled to sign arti- 
cles of capitulation, by which the British army, military stores 
and shipping, were surrendered to General Washington. The. 
number of the British forces that surrendered on that occasion 
amounted to something over seven thousand, but many of them 
at the time were unfit for duty. When the news of tliis glorious 
event, which was considered as deciding the contest, was report- 
ed to Congress, that body immediately recommended that a day 
of public thanksgiving should be observed throughout the United 
States. Shortly after the surrender of Cornwaliis, the British 
evacuated nearly all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, 
and joined the. main army in New York. 

22. As no * rational hope now remained of conquering America, 
Great Britain at length resolved to discontinue the prosecution 
of a war which had already exhausted the nation and reflected 
discredit upon their arms. Accordingly, on the 30th of Novem- 
ber, provisional articles of peace were signed, in which the inde- 
pendence of the United States was acknowledged ; and the 3d 
of September, 1783, there was concluded, at Versailles, by 
Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens, on the part of America, 
and Mr. Oswald, on the part of Great Britain, a definite treaty 
of peace, by which the thirteen United Colonies were admitted to 
he * i Free, sovereign, and independent States. 5 ' 

Thus terminated that long and eventful war of the Revolution, 
which cost Great Britain, besides the loss of her colonies, the sum 
of £1,000,000 sterling, and the lives of fifty thousand of her sub- 
jects. A contest, which produced for America, as the happy 
reward of her trials, her sufferings, and the blood of her patriots, 
the establishment of her freedom and independence. 

23. Peace being thus restored, the first step of Congress was to 
disband the army. But here a serious difficulty arose respecting 
the payment of the arrears of the officers and privates, many of 
whom had not received for five years the smallest compensation. 
The most serious consequences were about to ensue, when the 
storm, which seemed ready to plunge the rising republic into all 
the horrors of civil war, was happily quelled by the prudence and 
energy of General Washington. Congress having made arrange- 
ments for the payment of the soldiers, fixed upon the 3d of 
November for disbanding the army. 

21. What was now commenced and carried on ? What was the number of forces 
that surrenderee! ? At the news of this event, whaj did Congress do ' — 22. What did 
Great Britain at length resolve? What look place 6n the 30th of November? And 
finally on the 3d of September, 1783? What did the contest cost Great Britain'— 
23. What uow was the first siej of Congress? What difficulty arose? How was it 
cuellcd ? 



318 UNITED STATES 

24. On the da) previous, Washington issued his farewell ad- 
dress, bidding an affectionate adieu to the soldiers who had fought 
and 1)led by his side. After taking leave of the army, he was 
called to the still more painful duty of separation from officers 
endeared to him by the mutual dangers and sufferings they had 
endured together. After this, he immediately repaired to Anna- 
polis, where Congress was then in session, resigned his military 
commission, and declared that he was no longer invested with 
any public character. Having thus given back the almost un- 
limited power he possessed to that source from whence he received 
it, he retired to his estate at Mount Vernon, and again devoted 
himself to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture, carrying to his 
retirement the gratitude of his country and the applause and ad- 
miration of the world. 

25. At the close of .the war, when the states were released from 
the presence of danger, the government, under the Articles oj 
Confederation, was found to be weak, and wholly insufficient for 
the public exigencies. The authority of Congress was but little 
respected; a large public debt had been contracted, and no pro- 
visions had been made for paying the principal or the interest. 
The necessity, therefore, of a more efficient and general system 
of government was extensively felt; and in accordance with a 
proposition of the legislature of Virginia, commissioners from 
several states met, in 1786, at Annapolis, for the purpose of 
entering into certain commercial regulations. But after some 
deliberation they determined to adjourn with a proposal to all the 
other states to appoint delegates to meet at Philadelphia ? for the 
purpose of digesting a form of government equal to the exigencies 
of the Union. 

26. Agreeable to this proposition, delegates from every state, 
except Rhode Island, convened at Philadelphia on the 25th of 
May, 1787 % On the motion of Robert Morris, of Pennsylvania, 
General Washington, one of the delegates from Virginia, was 
unanimously elected President of the Convention. 

On taking the chair, he thanked the members of the Conven 
tion for the honor they had conferred upon him, reminded them 
of the novelty of the scene of business in which he was about to 
act, lamented his want of better qualifications, and claimed the 
indulgence of the house for any involuntary errors which his in- 
experience might occasion. On the 29th of May, the draft of a 
federal government, differing in some particulars from the present 
Constitution, was laid before the house by Mr. Charles Pinhney, 
of South Carolina. The Convention then proceeded to discuss 
each clause separately, during which various opinions were ad- 
vanced by the different delegates, and frequently animated dis- 
cussions followed. 

27. On the subject of salaries to the executive branch of the 

24. On the clay previous, what, did Washington do f After this, where did he re- 
pair ? Where did he relir-? — 25. At the close of the war. what was the government 
'brined to he ? What is sa.d of Congress? What proposition was made in the Legis- 
'ature of Virginia? What did they determine? — 26. Agreeably to this, what was 
done ? Who was eicetid President ? On taking his seat, what did he say ? On th<? 
29th of May, what was dor.e ? 



UNITED STATES. 3D 

legislature, Mr. IHlson, of Pennsylvania, who was opposed to 
the measure, observed, " Sir, there are two passions which have a 
powerful influence on the affairs of men. These are ambition and 
avarice; the love of power, and the love of money. Separately, 
each of these has great force in prompting men to action ; but 
when united in view of the same object, they have, in many 
minds, the most violent effects. Place before the eyes of such 
men a post of honor ; and at the same time that of profit, and they 
will move heaven and earth to obtain^it .... Ancl of what kind 
are the men that will strive for this profitable pre-eminence, 
through all the bustle of cabal, the heat of contention, the mutual 
abuse of parties, tearing to pieces the best of characters ? It will 
not be the wise and moderate, the lovers of peace and good order,' 
the men fittest for trust. It will be the bold and violent, men of 
.strong passions and indefatigable activity in selfish pursuits."* 

28. On the morning of the 17th of September, after the last 
reading of the Constitution, Doctor Franklin arose with a speech 
in his hand, which he had reduced to writing for his own conve- 
nience, and which read in the following words : 

" Mr. President — I confess that there are several parts of this 
Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure 
that I shall never approve them. For having lived long, I have 
experienced many instances of being obliged, by better informa- 
tion, or fuller consideration, to change my opinions even on im- 
portant subjects, which I once thought right, but found to be 
otherwise. It is, therefore, that the older I grow, the more apt I 
am to doubt my own judgment, and to pay more respect to the 
judgment of others. In these sentiments, sir, I agree to this Con- 
stitution with all its faults, if they are such, because I think a 
general government necessary for us, and there is no form of go- 
vernment but what may prove a blessing to the people, if well 
administered. Thus I consent, sir, to this Constitution, because 
I expect no better, and because I am not sure that it is not the 
best. The opinions I have had of its errors, I sacrifice to the 
public good. I have never whispered them abroad; within these 
walls they were born, here they shall die. I hope, therefore, that 
for our own sakes, as a part of the people, and for the sake of 
posterity, we shall act heartily and unanimously in recommend- 
ing this Constitution, if approved by Congress, wherever our 
influence may extend, and turn our future thoughts and endeavors 
to the means of having it well ad ministered .'"t The Constitution 
was then signed by ail the delegates present, with the exception 
of Mr. Randolph, Mr. Mason, and Mr. Gerry, who declined 
giving it the sanction of their names. \_See the Constitution of 
the United States, with names of the Delegates from each 
State, in the Appendix. ~] 

29. After four months' deliberation, the Federal Constitution, 

* Madison Papers, p. 772. t Ibid. p. 1596. 

17. On the subject of salaries, what did Mr. Wilson observe "—28. On the morning 
of the 17th of September, what was done by Doctor Franklin ? Who refused to sign 
the Constitution ? 



320 UNITED STATES. 

being thus almost unanimously agreed to by the members o( the 
Convention, was presented to Congress, and by that body trans- 
mitted to the several states for their consideration, and being at 
length accepted and ratified by eleven of the thirteen Confederate 
States, it became the Constitution of the United States, A. D. 
?788. North Carolina and PJiode Island, the two States which 
at first dissented from it, afterwards adopted it; the former in 
1789, and the latter in 1790. 

30. By the Constitution, all legislative powers are vested in a 
Congress of the United States, consisting of a President, a 
Senate, and House of Representatives, f See the Constitution, 
in the Appendix.! 

According to trie Constitution, the several States immediately 
elected their delegates to Congress ; and by the unanimous vote, 
General Washington was chosen the first President. When the 
appointment was officially announced to him, he yielded to the- 
unanimous call of his country, and bidding adieu to his peaceful 
retirement at Mount Vernon, he proceeded without delay to New 
York, where the Congress was then assembled. His progress to 
that city was marked by every demonstration of gratitude and 
respect; triumphal arches were erected to commemorate his 
achievements ; he was hailed as the father of his country ; the 
aged invoked a thousand^ benedictions upon him as he passed; 
the young expressed their hope, that as he had defended the in- 
jured rights of their parents, he would not refuse his protection 
to their children. 

31. On the 30th of April, he was inaugurated President of the 
United States, in the City Hall of New York, the oath of office 
being administered by Mr. Livingston, Chancellor of the State 
of New York. When he retired to the Senate Chamber, he ad- 
dressed both houses in an impressive speech, reminding them that 
no truth was more thoroughly established, than that there existed 
an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness; between 
duty and advantage ; between the genuine maxims of an honest 
and magnanimous people, and the solid rewards of public pros- 
perity and felicity ; and that the propitious smiles of an over- 
ruling providence could never be expected on a nation regardless 
of the fundamental rules of order and right, which Heaven itself 
had ordained. 

32. John Mams, of Massachusetts, who had borne a distin- 
guished part in the Revolution, was elected the first Vice-Presi- 
dent. The other principal officers, at the first organization of the 
government, were Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State; Alex- 
ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Henry A'ncz, 
Secretary of War; Edmund Randolph, Attorney-General, and 
John Jay, Chief Justice of the United States. The first event 

29. After four months' deliberation, what was done? When did it become the Con- 
stitution, &c. ? What states rejected it, and when did they adopt it ? — 30. By the Con- 
stitution, where is a legislative power invested? Who was chosen the first President"! 
Where did he proceed? What is said of his progress to that city? — 31. What took 
place on the 30th of April ? When retired, how did he address the houses ? Of what 
did ho remind them, &c? — 32. Who was the first Vice-President? Who were the 
other principal officers] 



UNITED STATES. 321 

cf importance that distinguished the administration of Washing- 
ton, was a sanguinary war with the Indians to the north of Ohio, . 
who obtained a victory over Generals Harmer and St. Claii ; but 
General Wayne, who was appointed to the command of the army 
in that section of the country, brought the war to a successful 
termination, and compelled the savages to conclude a treaty ot 
peace in 1795, at Greenville. * 

33. The first object of the legislative attention was to replenish 
the treasury. For this purpose, duties were laid on imported 
merchandise, and a reasonable taxation imposed on the tonnage 
of vessels. In 1790, Colonel Hamilton brought forward a bill 
for the formation of a national bank. On this subject the cabinet 
was divided. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Randolph considered the 
bill as decidedly unconstitutional. Hamilton and others, with 
equal decision, maintained the contrary opinion. But after a pro- 
tracted debate, a bill for establishing such a bank passed both 
branches of the legislature, and received the signature of the 
President. The bank was chartered for twenty years, with a 
capital of ten millions, in shares of four hundred dollars each. 
This measure seemed to increase the disaffection of many with 
the executive, and gave rise to the two parties into which we find 
the political community divided at the present time. The sup- 
porters of M . Hamilton and the national bank were styled 
federalists, while Mr. Jefferson and those who opposed it were 
denominated republicans. 

34. During the second term of Washington's administration, 
the United States were partially involved in difficulties growing 
out of the convulsions of Europe. The French Revolution had 
commenced, and that nation made certain demands on this coun- 
try for assistance, while the feelings of the people were warmly 
enlisted on the side of France, and would have urged the nation 
into hostilities with England. The President, however, deter- 
mine^ on a course of neutrality, and thus happily preserved the 
peace of the nation, although his policy met with much opposi- 
t'nn. At the expiration of his second term, Washington having 
previously declined a re-election, in a valedictory address to the 
people, replete with maxims of the soundest policy, and breathing 
the warmest sentiments of affection for his country, retired again 
to his residence at Mount Vernon, and was succeeded in office by 
John Adams, while Mr. Jefferson was chosen Vice-President. 

35. During Mr. Adams's administration, the menacing tone, 
and hostile attitude of the French Directory towards the United 
States, caused the American government to adopt measures of 
defense and retaliation. The navy was increased, and a pro- 
visional army raised, of which General Washington was appointed 
the commander-in-chief. Authority was given for the capturing 
of French armed vessels; this was followed by the capture of the 

AVhal fir«t distinguished the administration of "Washington ? — 33. What duties weio 
,aid ? In 1790. what did Hamilton do? What did Jefferson ar.d Randolph consider* 
For how long was ihe bank chartered ? To what did this measure give rise? — 34 
la what was the United States partially involved? What course did the Presiden 
pursue? At the expiration of his second term, what did "Washing-ton do? By whom 
was he succeeded ?- -35. During Mr. Adams's administration, what was done ? Wha 
Auth.inty was giver. * 



322 UNITED STATES. 

French frigate JSInsurgente, after a severe action, by the Ame- 
rican frigate Constellation. These decisive measures on the part 
of the united States, induced the French government, to accede 
to an amicable adjustment of the dispute. The Republic, at this 
period, was destined to experience a severe loss by the death of 
General Washington. On the 14th of December, he received a 
slight sprinkle ot rain, and was seized in a few hours afterwards, 
with an inflammation of the throat, attended by a fever ; he died 
on the following day, at his residence at Mount Vernon, in the 
sixty-eighth year of his age. {_See Biography.] 

36. For several years the country had been much agitated by the 
conflicting parties, which differed materially from each other in 
regard to the foreign relations of the country, and on various sub- 
jects of domestic policy. A commercial treaty with Great Britain, 
negotiated by Mr. Jay, in 1794, was severely censured by the 
Republicans or Democrats, who accused the Federalists of an 
undue partiality for England, and were accused, in turn, of 
a similar conduct towards France. Many of the measures of Mr. 
Adams's administration, both in relation to the foreign and do- 
mestic policy, were highly unpopular. The acts which excited 
the most disaffection, were those of raising a standing army, im- 
posing a direct tax, and enacting the " alien and sedition lawn?* 
A change having taken place in the administration of the public 
affairs, the Republican party having gained the ascendancy, 
elevated Mr. Jefferson to the Presidential chair, at the expiration 
of Mr. Adams's first term. 

37. 1801. At the time when Mr. Jefferson was raised to the 
presidency, harmony subsisted between the United States and the 
great European powers. A new scene of vexation arose, and 
eventually a war succeeded, growing out of the piracies of the 
Barbary States. After several disputes were settled with Tunis, 
•Algiers, and Morocco, the Bashaw of Tripoli demanded certain 
tributes, which the United States refused to pay. The refusal 
was immediately followed by the capture of several American 
vessels. In 1802, Commodore Dale, with three frigates, and a 
sloop of war, was sent into the Mediterranean, in order to pro- 
tect the American commerce. In the following year, the Phila- 
delphia, under the command of Captain Bainbridge, ran upon a 
rock about five miles from Tripoli, and being assailed on all sides, 
and deprived of every means of assistance, she was compelled to 
strike her colors ; her officers and men were made prisoners by 
the Tripolitans. The war finally terminated by a treaty in 1805. 

The other most striking events in the administration of Mr. 
Jefferson, were the purchase of Louisiana from the French, in 
1803, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, two millions and 
a half of which were to be retained by the United States as a 

What was the effect of these measures? When and where did General Washing- 
ton die ? — 3G. For several years, what had agitated the country ? What was censured 
by the Republicans? What is said of many of the measures of Mr. \dams? What acts 
excited disaffection ? Who was elevated to the Presidential enair ? — 37. What war 
eventually succeeded? What was demanded by Tripoli? By what was this followed 7 
in 1S02, what took place? And in the following-year ? When was the war terminated 1 
What were the other events of Mr. Jefferson's administration * In 1S09, what took 
place? By whom was lie succeeded? 



UNITED STATES. 323 

compensation fcr illegal captures made by the French ; the trial 
nl Aaron Burr, under the charge of conspiracy, and an attempt 
to overthrow the government ; he was finally acquitted j and by 
the expedition of Lewis and Clark, who explored the Missouri 
river, and contiguous countries, crossed the Rocky Mountains, 
reached the head waters of the Columbia, and descended that 
river to the Pacific ocean. 

In 1809, Mr. Jefi'ersqn's second term of office having expired, 
and being desirous of conforming to the example of General 
Washington, he declined a re-election. He was succeeded by 
James Madison, who had been a leading man in the late admin- 
istration, and who pursued a similar course of policy. 



SECTION VI. 

The Three Years' War. 

1. During the wars that had for some time convulsed the con- 
tinent of Europe, the United States endeavored to observe neu- 
trality towards the belligerent powers, and peaceably to maintain a 
commercial intercourse with them. In the month of May, 1806, 
the British government declared all the ports and rivers from the 
Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, in France, to be in a state of 
blockade, and that all neutral vessels trading with these ports, 
should be seized and condemned. In November following, the 
emperor of France issued his Berlin Decree, prohibiting all inter- 
course with the British islands. This decree of the emperor was 
followed by the Orders of the British Council, by which all 
neutral vessels trading with France were compelled to stop at a 
British port, and pay a duty. In consequence of this, Buona- 
parte issued his Milan Decree, by which all vessels submitting to 
the British search, or consenting to pay any pecuniary exactions 
whatever, were confiscated. 

2. About this time, at the recommendation of Mr. Jefferson, 
Congress laid an embargo on all the shipping of the United 
States; but the embargo was removed in the March of 1809, 
after it had remained in force about six months, and non-inter- 
course with France and England was substituted. While the 
trade of the United States was thus restricted and harassed by 
the belligerent powers of Europe, another species of injury and 
insult arose. This was the custom practiced by Great Britain of 
searching American vessels on the high seas, and impressing 
from them such seamen as were supposed to be British deserters. 
The custom was subject to great abuse, from the difficulty of 
distinguishing between American and British seamen ; but there 
was, moreover, strong reason to believe that the British officers 
were not always anxious to make the distinction, and that in some 

1. "Dur.i?<r <he vars of Europe, what had the United State3 endeavored? In lfOfi, 
what did the Briush government do? In November following. what was dyne? By 
what was this followed? What did Buonaparte issue \ — 'J. At this time. ;v!iat wrts 
iaid? But in 1809, what took place? What other species of injury and insult arose 1 
To wlvit was eustom subject? 



324 UNITED STATES. 

instances,- American citizens were compelled to serve in the 
British navy. 

3. Hitherto, this custom had been confined to private vessels, 
but in 1807, it was stated that four seamen, who had deserted 
from the British service, had entered on hoard the Chesapeake, 
an American frigate, carrying thirty-six guns, under the com- 
mand of Commodore Barron. Captain Humphreys, commanding 
the Leopard, an English frigate of fifty guns, in compliance with 
an order from Admiral Burkley, followed the Chesapeake beyond 
the waters of the United States, and after demanding the de- 
serters, fired a broadside upon the American frigate, by which 
four men were killed, and sixteen wounded. The Chesapeake 
immediately struck her colors, and the four seamen were given 
up, although there were strong reasons for believing that three of 
the number were native Americans. Commodore Barron, for 
neglect of duty, was suspended from the service for five years. 

4. This outrage produced a general indignation throughout 
the country. The British government disavowed the orders ol 
Admiral Burkley, and removed him from that station; but 
shortly afterwards appointed him to another of moreiinportance. In 
1809, James Madison succeeded Mr. Jefferson in the office of 
president. Madison, who had been a leading man in the late ad- 
ministration, pursued a course of policy similar to that of his pre- 
decessor. In April, arrangements were made with Mr. Erskine, 
the British minister, by which the American government again 
renewed the trade with England ; but these arrangements were 
subsequently disavowed by the British cabinet. In the succeed- 
ing negotiations, Mr. Jackson having made use of some offensive 
language, Mr. Madison declined having any further correspond- 
ence with him. In this state of things, an unfortunate encounter 
took place between the President, an American vessel, and the. 
Little Belt, an English sloop of war, which tended to increase 
the unfriendly feelings which had for some time existed between 
the two countries. 

5. 1812. The prospect of an amicable adjustment of the diffi 
culties between the United States and Great Britain, having 
been despaired of, the President, on the first of June, sent a mes- 
sage to Congress, strongly recommending to that body a decla 
ration of war. The principal grounds for this measure, as stated 
in the message, were the impressment of American seamen by 
the British ; the blockading the ports of their enemies, and sus 
nicions that the Indians had been instigated to acts of hostilities 
by the British agents. The bill for declaring war passed ihe 
House of Representatives by a majority of thirty votes : in tre 
Senate it passed by nineteen to thirteen, and on the eighteenth 
nf June, the day after it passed the Senate, it was signed by the 
President. 

3. In 1807, what 'was stated? What did Captain Humphrey? do? What did the 
Chesapeake do? What is said of Commodore Barron ? — 4. What is said of the British 
government? Who succeeded Mr. Jefferson ? — In April, what was done ? What id 
laid of Mr. Jackson ? In this state of thing's ? — 5. In 1819. what did the President do? 
What were the grounds for this measure ? Dy wl.at majority did the bill pass the 
House? And in the Senate 7 



UNITED STATES. 325 

6. The minority in Congress opposed the declaration of war, 
on the ground that it was unnecessary and impolitic ; therefore 
they protested against the measure. A considerable portion of 
the people supported the views of the minority ; the war, in con 
sequence, was prosecuted with much less vigor and energy than 
it might, had there been more unanimity in its favor. The first 
military operation after the declaration of war, was the invasion 
of Canada by General Hall, on the twelfth of July, at the head of 
two thousand men, but on the sixteenth of August, he disgrace- 
fully surrendered his whole army into the hands of the British. 
Hull was subsequently tried and found guilty of cowardice and 
neglect of duty, and was sentenced to be shot ; but in considera- 
tion of his age and revolutionary services, he was recommended 
to mercy, and the punishment of death was withdrawn by the 
President. 

7. A second invasion of Canada was attempted by General 
Van Rensselaer, who crossed the Niagara in November, with 
about one thousand men, and made an attack upon the British at 
Queenstown. After a severe action, the enemy was driven from 
the field; but being strongly re-inforced, they returned to the 
attack, and owing to the fact of the militia positively refusing to 
obey the orders of their general, the Americans were defeated, 
and a part of their army made prisoners of war. 

On the nineteenth of August, the frigate Constitution, com- 
manded by Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerrierc, 
after an action of thirty minutes. The loss of the Guerriere was 
fifteen killed, and sixty-four wounded ; that of the Constitution, 
seven killed, and seven wounded. In October, the frigate United 
States, commanded by Captain Decatur, took the British frigate 
Macedonia, and in the following month, the British sloop Frolic 
was captured by the Wasp, commanded by Captain Jones ; but 
the Wasp was shortly afterwards taken by a British seventy-four 
In December, the Constitution, then under the command of Cap- 
tain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java. 

8. 1813. The campaign of this year was attended with various 
success. Towards the end of January, a detachment of about 
eight hundred men, under General Winchester, was surprised 
and defeated by the British and Indians under General Proctor, 
at Frenchtown, on the Raisin; and the greater part of those who 
surrendered to the enemy, amounting to about five hundred, were 
inhumanly massacred by the Indians. In April, York, the capi- 
tal of Upper Canada, was taken by a detachment of Americans 
under General Pike, who was killed by the explosion of a maga- 
zine ; the British lost on that occasion about seven hundred men 
m killed, wounded, and captured. In May an attack was made 
on SackctVs Harbor by the British under Sir George Prcvost, 
but they were repulsed with considerable loss, by the Americans 

C. "What is said of t"..e minority in Congress? What was the first military opera- 
Jr,r? But on the sixteenth of August, what did he do? What sentence was pro- 
nounced on Hull? — 7. By whom was a second invasion of Canada attempted? On the 
nineteenth of August, what took place? What was the loss on each side? What cap- 
'ure* wrre afterwards made 1 - -S. Towards the euci of January, what tooK place? In 
4pnl ? And in May ': 

28 



326 UNITED STATES. 

under General Brown. About the same time the Americans took 
Fort George; but the progress of their victories suffered a mo- 
mentary check, by the capture of a considerable force under 
Generals Chandler and Winder, who w r ere taken by surprise by 
the British under General Vincent. 

9. But the most brilliant achievement of this year was Perry's 
victory on Lake Erie, which took place on the 10th of September. 
The British fleet consisted of six vessels, carrying sixty-three 
guns ; that of the Americans, of nine with fifty-six guns. For 
some time the contest appeared doubtful. The flag-ship of the 
Americans, at the commencement of the action, suffered severely, 
and being in a sinking condition, Perry descended into an opeu'(- 
boat, and passing through a shower of balls, transported his flag 
to another vessel. After a tremendous conflict of three hours, 
victory declared in favor of the Americans, who reduced the 
British fleet to almost a total wreck. After this victory, General 
Harrison embarked his forces and landed on the Canada shore, 
and on the 5th of October defeated the British, at the battle of 
the Thames, under General Proctor. In this battle the cele- 
brated Indian Chief Tccumseh was killed by Colonel Johnson. 

10. Little more was done this year towards the conquest of 
Canada. General Wilkinson made an attack on Williamsburg, 
but was repulsed with considerable loss. During this year the 
British fleet, under Admiral Cockburn, committed various depre- 
dations in the south. The English, however, were more fortu- 
nate on the ocean during this season than they had been previous- 
ly. In February, the Hornet, commanded by Captain Lawrence, 
captured the Peacock, a British sloop of war. In the course of 
the summer, Captain Lawrence was appointed to the command 
of the Chesapeake, which was captured by the Shannon, com- 
manded by Captain Broke. 

11. 1814. The campaign of this year was distinguished by 
several important actions on the frontiers. On the 12th of July 
the Americans, under General Brown, took Fort Erie, and shortly 
afterwards defeated the British under General Drummond, after 
an obstinate engagement at Chippewa; and the 25th of the same 
month, Generals Brown and Scott, at the well contested battle 
of Bridgewatcr, defeated the British, commanded by Generals 
Drummond and Rial; the loss of the enemy was nine hundred 
men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners. In September, a com- 
bined attack was made on Plattsburg by a British squadron, car- 
rying ninety-five guns and one thousand and fifty men, com- 
manded by Commodore Downie, and a land force uudcr Sir 
George Prevost. But the naval force was totally destroyed by 
the American fleet, commanded by Commodore Macdonough. 
During the engagement of the fleets, the British were effectually 

What fort did the Americans take ? By what was their progress checked ?— 9 
What was the most brilliant achievement of this year ? What was the number of 
vessels in each ileet ? Describe the batt le ? Af er this, what was done by Gen. Har- 
rison ? In this battle who was killed ?— 10. Where did Gen, Wilkinson mnke an 
at:ack ? Wnat is said of the British fleet ? In February, what took p!ace ? And in 
the course of the summer ?— 11. For what was the campaign of this year distinguished ? 
On the 12th of July, what was done ? And on the 25th? And in September ? 



UNITED STATES. 327 

repulsed in their attack on the forts of Plattsburg by the Ameri- 
cans under General Macomb. The whole loss of the British on 
this occasion amounted to two thousand five hundred men, while 
the total loss of the Americans, on land and water, did not exceed 
two hundred and thirty-one. 

12. In the month of August, a British fleet of sixty sail under 
Admiral Cochrane, entered the Chesapeake and landed a force 
Df six thousand men, commanded by General Boss, on the banks 
of the Patuxent, about forty miles from Washington. The British 
general immediately commenced his march towards the capital, 
But at Bladensburg he met with a momentary repulse. At this 
point, the Americans under General Winder had assembled to 
oppose his progress, and a slight engagement followed. At the 
commencement of the action, however, the American militia fled, 
leaving Commodore Barney, with a few eighteen pounders and 
about four hundred marines, to sustain the whole weight of the 
conflict. Barney was at length wounded and taken prisoner. 
After this the British hastened to Washington, which they enter- 
ed the same evening, burnt the capitol, the President's house, 
and other public buildings, and retired without molestation. 

13. About a fortnight after this event, a combined attack was 
made on the city of Baltimore, by the British fleet of fifty sail 
under Admiral Cochrane, and a land force of seven thousand 
men under the command of General Ross. On the morning of 
the 12th of September, they effected a landing at North Point, 
about fourteen miles below the city. General Strieker was 
detached with about three thousand five hundred men, chiefly 
militia, to oppose their advance. General Ross, having preceded 
his army with a small reconrfoitering party, was shot through the 
breast by one of the American riflemen, and falling into the arms 
of his aid-de-camp, he expired in a few minutes. The command 
then devolved upon Colonel Brook, who led on the attack. After 
maintaining his position for an hour and a half against a great 
superiority of numbers, General Strieker drew off his men and 
retired to Worthington Mills, about half a mile in advance of the 
main body. In the mean time a furious assault was made upon 
Fort McHenry, by a discharge of bombs and rockets from the 
British squadron. But after the bombardment had continued for 
twenty-five hours, the attempt was abandoned, and the fleet 
having taken on board the forces under Colonel Brook, moved 
down the bay. 

14. Up to this period, the British had discovered no disposition 
to treat with commissioners of the United States; but the intelli- 
gence of the defeat of their army at Plattsburg gave a new turn 
to the negotiation: and a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, on 
the 24th of December, 1S14. 

While the negotiation was in progress, a large armament had 

What was the loss on both sides?— 12. In the month of August, what was done* 
What took place at Bladensburg? What was done by the militia? What is said of 
Barney? "What places did they burn?— 13. On what city was an attack made? On 
Ihe 12th of September, what was done? "What was the fate of Gen. Poss? Wbatdil 
Hen. Stiicker do ? In the mean time, what assault was made ?— 14. "When and where 
waa the treity of peace signed ? 



328 UNITED STATES. 

Deen despatched under the command of Sir Edward Packenham, 
lor the purpose of making an attack upon the city of ]New Orleans. 
Fortunately for the city, which was in a very bad state of defense, 
General Jackson, the commander-in-chief of the forces in the 
southern district, arrived there on the 2d of December from 
Mobile. His presence was immediately felt by the confidence 
which it inspired, and by the unanimity with which the people 
seconded his prompt arrangements. 

15. The British, after enduring incredible fatigue and difficul- 
ties, at length succeeded in reaching the main entrenchment of 
the Americans, which had been thrown up for the defense of the 
city. This they determined to take by an assault. Accordingly, 
on the 8th of January, 1815, they advanced to the attack, but 
were repulsed with immense slaughter by the Americans under 
General Jackson. In this memorable engagement, the British 
lost seven hundred killed, and fourteen hundred wounded, and 
five hundred prisoners. Generals Packenham and Gibbs were 
mortally wounded. The loss on the part of the Americans h 
said to have amounted to only seven killed and six wounded 
This was the last important event of the war; the news of the 
treaty of peace, which arrived shortly after, put an end to further 
hostilities. 

16. In the treaty of Ghent no allusion is made to the causes of 
the war. " Security against future egression," as Mr. Grimshaw 
observes, *' rests on a much firmer basis than the provisions ol 
the most solemn treaty. Great Britain has been taught to appre- 
ciate the strength of the republic. She will read in the history 
of the late struggle, the most convincing arguments against the 
invasion of neutral rights." 

17. Mr. Madison having filled the office of President for two 
successive terms, was succeeded, in 1817, by James Monroe. 
During the administration of Monroe, Florida was ceded to the 
United States by Spain, and erected into a territorial government 
in 1822. Mr. Monroe was succeeded in 1825 by John Quincy 
Adams, whose administration for four years was not marked by 
any events of great importance. This year was rendered memo- 
rable for the visit of General La Fayette to the United States. 
Before his departure for France, Congress voted him the sum of 
two hundred thousand dollars and a township of land, as a remu- 
neration for his services during the revolutionary war, and as a 
lasting testimony of their gratitude. On the 4th of July, 1820, 
while the nation was celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of its 
independence, John .Mains died at Quincy in Massachusetts, in 
the ninety-first year of his age, and on the same day, Thomas 
Jefferson expired at Monticello in Virginia, having completed his 
eighty-third year. 

18. In 1829, General Andrew Jackson succeeded Mr. Adams 

While this was in progress, what city was attacked? What was fortunate for the 
city?— IS. What is said of the British? What took piace or. the Sth of January? What 
was the loss on both sides ?— 10. What is sa'ri of the ti-aty of Ghent? What does Mr 
Grimshaw observe?— 17. By whom was Madison succeeded? Who succeeded in 
1825? For what is this year rendered memorable? AVhen and where did Adaml 
and Jefferson die?— IS. In 1S29, what ook place? 



UNITED STATES. 329 

as President ot the United States, and in his first message to 
Congress he called the attention of that body to the Bank of the 
United States, the charter of which was about to expire. In the 
spring of 1832, a bill passed both houses for re-chartering the bank, 
with some new modifications and restrictions. The hill, however, 
was vetoed by the president, who, in his message returning the bill, 
declared the bank to be, in his opinion, inexpedient and unconstitu- 
tional, and announced his firm determination never to sanction by 
his approval, the continuance of that institution, or the re-establish- 
nient of any other on similar principles. General Jackson was suc- 
ceeded in the presidency in 1837 by Martin Van Baren, who held 
the office for four years. His administration was particularly dis- 
tinguished by a treaty with the Sioux Indians, and also a treaty with 
the Winnebagoes, by which they agreed to relinquish all their land 
east of the Mississippi; in consideration of which, the United 
States government agreed to pay them the sum of $2,500,000. 

19. On the 4th of March, 1841, General William Henry Harrison 
was inaugurated President of the United States, but died on the 4th 
of the following April. In consequence of his decease, the Vice- 
President, John Tyler, was inaugurated in his place, according to a 
provision of the Constitution. 

During the early part of the administration of Mr. Tyler, a do- 
mestic difficulty occurred in Rhode Island. An attempt was made 
to abolish the ancient charter, by which the State was governed, and 
to adopt a constitution. The discontented party accordingly framed 
a constitution, elected a legislature, and chose Thomas W. Dorr as 
governor. The attempt, however, to carry out the measure, was 
finally unsuccessful; the state was put under martial law; Dorr 
fled, but was afterwards taken, tried for treason, and sentenced to 
imprisonment for life. After lingering in captivity for some time, he 
was pardoned; in the meantime, a constitution for the state was 
adopted. 

20. The other most important events during Mr. Tyler's adminis- 
tration were the settlement of the northeastern boundary line, be- 
tween Maine and Canada, which was negotiated ^by Lord Ashbur- 
ton on the part of England, and Mr. Webster on the part of the 
United States, — and the proposition for the admission of Texas into 
the Union. 

On the 4th of March, 1845, Mr. Tyler's term of office expired, 
and Mr. James K. Polk, of Tennessee, who had been previously 
elected, succeeded to the office of President of the United States ; and 
Mr. George M. Dallas to that of Vice-President. 

To what did lie call the attention of Congress? In 1833, what passed What is said 
of the bill ? By whom was Jackson succeeded? By what was his administration distin- 
guished ?— 19. On ttie 4lhof March, whattittk place? When did he die? What was done 
in consequence? During Mr. Tyler's administration, what took place? What w.i9 
framed ? What is is said of the attempt? What uecamc of Dorr?— -id Whnt were the 
other most important events of Tyler's administration? What tuok placi; on the 4th ol 
March, 1845 ? 

28* 



330 UNITED STATES. 

SECTION VII. 

War ivith Mexico. 

I. One of the most important events which took place during 
Mr. Polk's administration, was the war with Mexico. Mexico had 
been for several centuries a Spanish province, but finally revolted 
against the power of Spain, and having established her independ- 
ence, assumed a republican form of government. The people of the 
United States rejoiced at the event; they freely extended their hand 
to invite a sister republic to take her stand among the nations of the 
earth, and were the first to acknowledge her independence. 

2. But scarcely had Mexico declared her independence from the 
crown of Spain, when she committed outrages on the persons and 
property of American citizens. While the citizens of the United 
Stales were engaged in carrying on a lawful commerce with Mexico, 
they were imprisoned, their vessels seized, and our flag repeatedly 
insulted. The government of the United States had frequently 
demanded a redress in behalf of its injured citizens, but the demand 
was refused, or the subject evaded. It had been hoped that, after 
the treaty of the 5th of April, 1831, the causes of complaint would 
have been removed, and that Mexico would be restrained by the 
laws and usages of civilized nations. 

3. This was far from being the case ; for scarcely had two months 
passed away, when fresh outrages had been committed : and so 
intolerable had they become, that President Jackson, in his message 
to Congress, said, "that they should not beany longer endured," and 
a messenger was dispatched to Mexico to make a final demand for 
redress. The Mexican government expressed a desire to continue 
a friendly intercourse, and at the same time promised that the dtin* 
culties should be settled. 

In August, 1840, a joint commission was organized to settle the 
claims. The claims that were allowed before the board, amounted 
to two million, twenty-six thousand, one hundred and thirty-nine 
dollars, and sixty-eight cents ; and the amount unsettled, at that time, 
fell a little short of one million. 

4. On the 30th of January, 1843, a second convention was con- 
cluded between the two governments, by which it was determined, 
that the interest due on the awards, made in favor of our citizens, 
should be paid to them on the 30th of April, 1843, and the principal, 
with the interest accruing thereon, in five years in equal instalments 
every three months. With this treaty, however, Mexico failed to 
comply ; the claimants, up to the period of the war, having only 
received the interest due on the 30th of April, 1843, and three out 
of the twenty instalments. This conduct on the part of Mexico 

1. What was one of the most important event* during Polk's administration? What 
is said of Mexico ? Of the people of the United States ?— 2. What did Mexico commit > 
While citizens of (he United States, &c, what did they do ? What was hoped alter the 
tr*aty of 1831 ?— 3. What was again committed? What did General Jackson say, and 
do? In 18111, what was done? vVhat did the claims amount to?— 4 On the 30th n{ 
Jim-', 1843, what was concluded.' 1 With what did Mexico fail 'o comply' VVhat is sriid 
~>i the claimants 7 What, is said of this conduct 



UNITED STATES. 331 

may be regarded as. one of the primary causes of the war, the an- 
nexation of Texas was the immediate cause. 

5. Texas was formerly a province of Mexico, and had been set- 
tled principally by emigrants from the United States. In 1834 her 
citizens becoming displeased with the unjust and tyrannical pol- 
icy of the Mexican government, declared themselves independent. 
A war ensued, which finally terminated in favor of the Texans, by 
the defeat of the Mexicans in the battle of San Jacinto, at which 
Santa Anna, the Mexican president, was taken prisoner, A. D. 1836. 

6. In 1845, the Texans, having intimated a wish to be admitted 
into the Union as a Slate, a proposition was laid before Congres* for 
the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the United States ; and 
after a Avarm discussion on the subject, the proposition passed, and 
Texas was admitted into ihe Union on the 29th of December, 1845. 
The boundary between Texas and Mexico had never been properly 
defined. Texas held the Rio Grande, from its source to its mouth, to be 
the boundary line between the two countries ; while Mexico regarded 
the river Nueces as the boundary, and claimed the territory between 
the two rivers. Such was the slate of things when Texas was 
admiited into the Union. • • 

7. But, the United States having, admitted Texas with the Nueces 
as her boundary, claimed the disputed territory, and of necessity, 
became bound to settle the difficulty with the Mexican government. 
Mexico still maintained her right to the territoryibetween the two 
rivers, and began to make preparations to invade the country. On 
receiving intelligence of this, Mr. Polk directed General Taylor to 
take some convenient position beyond the river Nueces, in order to 
repel any invasion on the part of Mexico. Accordingly, General 
Taylor crossed the Nueces, and took up a position at Point Isabel. 
Leaving a garrison at that place, he proceeded south to the banks of 
the Rio Grande, and erected a fort, called Fort Brown, opposite 
Mala moras, a town on the Mexican side of the river. 

8. On the 23d of April, General Taylor was informed that a large 
Mexican force had crossed the Rio Grande. On receiving this infor- 
mation, he immediately dispatched Captain Thornton with a small 
force, to reconnoitre the position of the enemy; but Thornton, in 
charging the Mexicans, was captured, and his men either killed or 
taken prisoners. On the 29th of the same month, information 
reached General Taylor that Point Isabel was attacked by the ene- 
my, and in distress. The General immediately resolved to go to its 
relief, and to open a communication between the two posts. Accord- 
ingly, on the 1st of May, he left Fort Brown with the main body of 
his army on his march towards Point Isabel, leaving strict orders to 
the garrison of the r ort to defend it to the last, if attacked by the 
rnemy. 

f>. What was Texas? in V834, what took place.' Whai ensued ' How did it termi- 
nate : — 6. In 1645, what was done ? When was Texas admiited into the Union ? What 
is said of the boundary between Texas and Mexico? What did Texas hold? What 
did Mexico regard? 7. What is said ot the United Stales? What did Mexico still do? 
What did I'olk direct? What did General Tajior do? What did he civet:— 8. On the 
23d of April, of what was General Taylor informed? What did he do? What was 
die fat-: of Thornton? On the 29th what happened ? What did the Genera, resolve* 
On the irst of May, what did la- do ? 



332 UNITED STATES 

9. But scarcely had General Taylor departed when the Mexicans 
began to make preparations lo annihilate the fort he had left behind, 
and bury beneath its ruins its brave defenders. Accordingly on the 
3d of May the sacred quiet of Sunday was broken by the thunder 
of cannon ; a furious assault was made upon the American works. 
From this time until Saturday, an almost incessant shower oi 
balls and shells was poured upon the entrenchments. The skua] 
tion of the garrison was critical in the extreme ; they were shut up 
within the walls of a temporary fortification, surrounded by a nu 
merous and powerful enemy, cut off from all communication with 
their companions in arms, and having only four hundred rounds o\ 
ammunition. 

10. In the meantime General Arista sent a summons to the fort 
to surrender, with a declaration that if it were not obeyed within 
an hour, he would put all the garrison to the sword. A declaration 
like this, under the circumstances in which it was delivered, was 
calculated to shake the constancy of the stoutest hearts ; but nothing 
could subdue the resolution of the garrison. A council of war was 
called, and the awful summons laid before the members ; when the 
question was asked, what should be done ? "Defend the fort to death" 
was the unanimous reply ; and in a few mom?nts every man was 
again at his post, prepared to carry out the resolution. 

1 1. In the meantime signal guns had been fired, with a view of 
communicating to their companions at Point Isabel the death strug- 
gle that was going on at Fort Brown. As the heavy sounds broke 
upon the plains, they at length fell upon the ear of General Taylor. 
He listened for a moment, and remembering the smallness of the 
force he had left behind, and the number of the enemy, he imme- 
diately resolved to march to the aid of the garrison. On the 7th, he 
commenced his march, saying : " If I meet the enemy, I will fight 
them." On the following day he arrived at a place called Palo 
Alto. At this point, the Mexicans had assembled to oppose his 
progress; they were drawn out in order of battle, their lines ex- 
tending over a mile across a plain, bordered with chaparral; their 
lancers were placed a little in advance, on the left; behind these, 
they had stationed their infantry, while their heavy batteries were 
placed in the centre. 

12. When General Taylor came in sight of the enemy, he im 
mediately drew up his little army in order of battle. General 
Twiggs commanded the right, composed of the 3d, the 4th, and 
the 5th infantry, and Major Ringgold's artillery. Lieutenant 
Churchill commanded two eighteen pounders in the centre, while 
Colonel Belknap was placed over the left, composed of Duncan's 
artillery, and the 8th infantry. Scarcely was the order completed, 
when the battle was commenced by a furious discharge from Ring- 

9. What did the Mexicans do? On the 3d of May what took place? What followed? 
What is said of ihe situation of the garrison ? — 10. In the me antime what did General 
Jlrista do? What is said of this declaration? What was called? What was the 
unanimous reply? — 11. What was done ? What is said? What did he do and resolve* 
On the 7th what did he do and say? Where did he arrive? At this place, who were 
assembled? Describe the position? — 12. What did General Taylor do ; What was the 
disposftion of his forces? liow was the battle commenced? 



UNITED STATES. 333 

gold's battery, on the right. On the left Duncan's battery poured in 
a fierce and destructive shower of balls ; while the two eighteen 
pounders in the centre shook the plains with their fire, and as they 
advanced, they poured destruction into the ranks of the enemy. 

13. The battle now for several hours raged with unabating fury 
The Mexicans relying in their numbers, and in the strength of theii 
position, fought in every confidence of victory. On the other side, 
our men, aware of the circumstances under which they fought, felt 
that victory depended on their skill and valor. The action continued 
with equal bravery on both sides until dark, when the Mexicans with- 
drew from their position, and retired into the chaparral, while General 
Taylor and his gallant army encamped for the night upon the field of 
battle. The forces of the Mexicans in this engagement amounted to six 
thousand men, while those under General Taylor did not exceed two 
thousand three hundred. The loss of the enemy in killed and wounded 
amounted to nearly lour hundred ; while the loss on the side of the 
Americans was only nine killed and forty-two wounded ; but among 
the number of the slain, was the much lamented Major Ringgold. 

14. The situation of General Taylor was exceedingly critical. 
His troops were weary after a hard lought battle; he was within a 
short distance of the fort, but far removed from reinforcements ; 
while the enemy was reinforced, and preparing again to oppose his 
progress. In this state of things, he called a council of war. Some 
were for advancing, others were for entrenching where they stood, 
or for retreating to Point Isabel. When all had spoken, the old Gen- 
eral said, with a firmness that bespoke the greatness of his soul : 
"Gentlemen, if I live I will be at Fort Brown before night." This 
determined the council; his officers unanimously resolved to sup- 
port his resolution. 

15. As soon as the morning dawned General Taylor continued 
his march towards Fort Brown, and came in sight of the enemy, 
drawn up in order of battle, at a place called Resaca at la Raima. 
The Mexicans had strongly fortified this point, by erecting a battery 
on the right of the road leading to it, another on the left, and a third 
in the centre. As our little army advanced, the enemy's batteries 
opened upon it a furious and destructive fire. Still they moved 
onward, pouring in a well directed fire at every step. On the right 
they gained considerable advantage, while on the left, Ridgely's bat- 
tery swept down the enemy at every discharge. 

1G. From the beginning of the contest, our army had advanced, 
and had driven the enemy from their original positions in every part, 
except along the road, where the centre battery was playing. This 
battery had caused considerable loss to our lines. At length, Gene- 
ral Taylor seeing that the fate of the battle depended on the captur- 

What is said of the left? The centre ?— 13. What is now said of the battle? What 
is said of the Mexicans? Of our men? What is said of the action? What of the 
Mexicans ? Of General Taylor and his army ? What was the number of the f >rces on each 
Bid'? What was the loss of the enemy? The loss on the side of the Americans;— 14. 
What i< said of General Taylor 1 Of his troops? What was called? What is said of 
some? Of others? What (lid the General himself say ?— 15. As soon as Ihe morning 
dawned, what did General Taylor do? Where did he meet the Mexicans? As the arnif 
advanced, what Happened ? What did they still do?— 16. From the beginning, what L 
•aid ? What did General Taylor do, aud say ? 



334 UNITED STATES. 

ing of that battery, rode up to Captain May, and ordered hira to 
charge it at the head of his dragoons, adding these words : " Sir, 
you must take it." May immediately turned to his companions, and 
pointing to the battery, said : "Men, we must take that battery. 17 In 
a moment, May, at the head of his gallant troop, moved along the 
road, in the very face of the enemy's blazing battery, a cloud of 
dust marking their career. 

17. In a few moments more, the bugle sounded to the charge ; but 
just at that instant, a furious discharge swept through them, leaving 
nearly a third of the company prostrate upon the ground. When 
smoke and dust cleared away, it was seen that the fortificai ions were 
in possession of the Americans. May, upon his powerful charger, 
leaped the ditch and breast-work of the battery, followed by his com 
panions; they rode down the men at their guns, broke through the 
Mexican lines, and took General Vega prisoner. At this sight a 
universal shout was raised from our army ; the infantry rushed 
forward, driving the enemy before them. The fate of the day was 
decided ; from this moment the battle became a rout, and the Mexi- 
cans, terrified at the valor of their enemies, rushed furiously towards 
the river in the direction of Matamoras. 

18. While the battle raged, the garrison of Fort Brown had lis- 
tened with intense anxiety, as the shrill sound of the musket, and 
the heavy roar of the cannon vibrated across the plain, and as the 
combat deepened, their anxiety increased ; in breathless silence they 
awaited the issue of the fearful contest. But when they saw the 
enemy routed, and rushing in wild confusion over the field, pursued 
by our cavalry, they mounted the rampart, and waiving their ban- 
ner to the breeze, they sent up a shout of victory. Although more 
than three thousand shots had been fired at the fort, yet only two 
men had been killed. In this battle the Mexicans lost upwards ol 
two hundred killed, and six hundred wounded, together with two 
thousand stand of arms, six hundred mules, and the private papers 
of General Arista. The loss, on the part of the Americans, was 
thirty-nine killed and eighty-two wounded. 

19. On the south side of the river, and directly opposite Fort 
Brown, stands the city of Matamoras, about twenty-eight miles from 
Point Isabel, and six from Palo Alto, and at that time containing 
about ten thousand inhabitants. General Taylor, after spending a 
few days at Fort Brown, resolved to make himself master of Mata- 
moras. Accordingly, on the morning of the 17th, he sent a commu- 
nication to the Mexican general, demanding a surrender of the place, 
together with all the public property in the city, and only giving him 
until three o'clock to consider the matter. The peremptory tone in 
which the demand was made, had the desired effect; for in a few 

What is said of May? In a moment, what did he do ? — 17. In a few moments more, 
what happened ? When the ;moke and dust cleared away, what was seen ? What did 
May do? Whom did did he take prisoner ? At the sight, what was done? What did 
the Mexicans do ?— 18. While the butt'e raged, what is said of the garrison ? When they 
saw the enemy, &c, what did they do: How many were killed in the fort: In this 
^att.e what did the Mexicans lose ? What was the loss on tlie part of the Americans ?- 
i.y. Where does the city of Matamoras stand? What did General Taylor resolve ? Co 
die 7th what did he do ? What is said of this peremptory tone ? 



UNITED STATES. ■ 335 

hours afterwards, the governor of the city sent a communication to 
General Taylor stating that he might enter the city as soon as he 
thought proper. On the next day, he took possession of Matamoras, 
but found it deserted by Arista, the Mexican general, who, previous 
to his departure had thrown a large number of cannons into wells. 

20. Although General Taylor had defeated the Mexicans in two 
decisive engagements, and was now in possession of Matamoras, 
still he found it impossible to follow up his success, owing to the 
want of troops and supplies, and he was obliged to remain inactive 
during a greater part of the summer. In the meantime a large 
force under the command of General Ampudia, had concentrated 
at Monterey, a city in New Leon, about one hundred and seventy 
miles from Matamoras. 

21. On the 7th of September, General Taylor, having received 
reinforcements, left Matamoras, and on the 19th of the same month 
he encamped at the Walnut Springs, a short distance from Mon- 
terey. The city of Monterey was strongly fortified both by nature 
and art; its narrow streets were barricaded with heavy masonry, 
while from the windows of the houses, and from the flat, roofs, 
on which battlements were erected, a deadly fire could be poured 
fonh upon an advancing enemy. To the west, on a steep and craggy 
eminence, stood a fortification called the Bishop's Palace. Strong 
and massive forts were erected on the north and east, while the San 
Juan river flowed along the south. These fortifications were mounted 
with forty pieces of cannon, and manned by more than ten thou- 
sand men. 

22. Notwithstanding the strength of the position, and the great 
superiority of numbers, on the part of the Mexicans, General Tay- 
lor resolved to attack the city. Orders were given to make the 
attack in three divisions ; the first was placed under General Theiggs, 
the second under General Worth, and the third under General Butler. 
On tire 20th of September, General Worth, was ordered to take a 
position on the Saltello road, and to storm the heights of the Bishop's 
Palace, but owing to unavoidable delays, Worth was not able to 
reach his position until the morning of the 21st. 

23. On this morning the battle properly commenced, and raged 
but with little intermission for three days. On the first day, several 
of the principal forts were stormed and taken in the rear of the city; 
and on the following day, the heights of the Bishop's Palace were 
carried, and the fort itself fell into the hands of the Americans. The 
23J was marked by desperate fighting on both sides. The Ameri- 
cans still continued to advance, but every inch of ground they gained 
was desperately contested ; they were compelled to drive back the 
enemy at the point of the bayonet. But nothing could check their 

What followed ? On the next day, what did he do ?— 20. What is said of_ General 
Taylor? In the meantime, where had a large force concentrated? — 21. On the 7th, what 
did' Taylor do ? What is said of the city, and how was it fortified ? Where was the 
Bishop's Palace? Hy what were these fortifications mounted r— 22. What did General 
Taylor resolve ? Wliat orders were given ? On the 20th of September, what was Gene- 
ril Worth ordered lo do ? What followed?— 2Ii. What is said of the battle ? On the first 
Cay, what were taken ? On the following day? What is said of the 23d? What in 
Baid of the Americans ? What were they compelled to do ? What is said of their valor 



336 UNITED STATES. 

impetuosity, or weaken their courage ; fortification after fortification 
yielded to their valor, until the night of the third day's battle, tne 
troops of Worth and Quitman had nearly met in the principal plaza 
of the city. 

24. On the following morning, General Ampudia surrendered the 
city to General Taylor. An armistice was concluded for eight weeks, 
or until instructions from government could be received. 

Monterey was defended by forty-two pieces of cannon well sup- 
plied with ammunition, and garrisoned by ten thousand men. The 
forces of the Americans amounted to six thousand six hundred men. 
The loss on the side of the Mexicans was estimated at about one 
thousand in killed and wounded; while the Americans lost one hun- 
dred and twenty-six killed and three hundred and fifty wounded 
After this battle General Taylor established his head quarters at 
Monterey, while General Worth with one thousand two hundred 
men was directed to his position at Saltello. 

25. In the meantime, General Santa Jlnna, who had previously 
been banished from the country, was recalled, and placed at thw 
head of the Mexican government. The high military reputation 
of Santa Anna inspired the Mexicans with renewed confidence, 
and in a short time he collected around him an army of twenty 
thousand men, and encamped at San Luis Potosi, a strongly forti- 
fied city. 

While these things were going on, General Winfield Scott was 
ordered by the government to take command of all the land forces 
in Mexico ; at the same lime he was directed to withdraw from Gen- 
eral Taylor nearly all the regulars under his command, to aid in the 
reduction of the city of Vera Cruz. At the same time, General 
Worth was ordered to leave his post at Saltello, and march to Vera 
Cruz, while General Taylor was directed to fall back to Monterey, 
and await the arrival of reinforcements. 

2G. About the middle of February, 1847, General Taylor, team- 
ing that the Mexican President was about to make an attempt to 
possess himself of the posts of communication between Saltello and 
Matamoras, resolved to frustrate his design. On 20th of February 
he was encamped at AguaJYueva, about eighteen miles from Saltello, 
with a force of five thousand men. Here he was informed that 
Santa Anna, at the head of twenty thousand men, was about twenty 
miles distant. On receiving this intelligence. General Taylor fell 
hack to Buena Vista, about seven miles from Saitello. The position 
selected by General Taylor was one of great strength; he ihus de- 
scribes it himself: 

27 " The road at this point becomes a narrow defile ; the valley on 
the right being full of impassable gullies, while on the left, rugged 
ridges extend far back to the mountains. The ground was so broken 

24. What is said of General Jlmpudial What was concluded? How was Monterey 
defended? What was ihe kiss on both sides? Wnere did Taylor establish his head- 
quarters?— 25. In the meantime what took place' What is said of his reputation? What 
did he collect? While these things were goinr; on what took niace ? What orders did 
Several Worth receive? What General Tay lor ?— 26. In February of what was Gene- 
ral Tayloi informed,, ami what did he resolve? On the 20in of February, where did 
Je ijiicanip? Whe>e did he fail back to.— 27. How dofs he describe the position' 



UNITED STATES. 337 

as nearly to paralize the artillery and cavalry of the enemy. Cap- 
tain Washington's battery wasposted to command the road j another 
force under Colonels Hardin and Bissel occupied the crests of the 
ridge on the left and in the rear, and a small force under Colonels 
Yell and Marshall occupied the left, near the base of the mountain, 
while another body held the reserve.'' 

28. On the morning of the 22d of February, the Mexican army- 
approached the American lines, and about eleven o'clock Santa 
Anna sent a communication to General Taylor, informing him that 
he was surrounded by twenty thousand men, and demanding an 
immediate surrender. The messenger was politely received by Gen- 
eral Taylor, but a positive refusal to comply with the demand re- 
turned to the Mexican General. Shortly after the reply of General 
Taylor was delivered to Santa Anna, the Mexican batteries were 
opened upon the American lines, but without doing any material 
injury. In sight of each other, the two armies remained within their 
lines, until the close of the evening. While the anxious night of 
the 22d wore away, the combatants on either side stood at" their 
arms, waiting with impatience the return of day. The Mexicans, 
actuated by all the emotions that patriotism and national pride can 
inspire, were resolved to drive back the invaders, and wipe off the 
disgrace that attended their arms on the plains of Palo Alto, Resaca 
de la Pahna, and at Monterey ; while the Americans were resolved 
to sustain the honor of their country, or find a burial place in the 
mountain ravines of Buena Vista. 

29. At daybreak on the following morning the battle of Buena 
Vista was commenced. At an early state of the engagement Gene- 
ral Taylor perceived that it was the design of the Mexicans to turn 
the left flank of. the American line, and for that purpose they had 
concentrated a large body of infantry. To prevent this, he ordered 
Sherman's and Bragg's batteries to the left, and the second Illinois 
regiment to take a position between them, while the Kentucky regi- 
ment was removed to the right of the line, so as to occupy a posi- 
tion near the centre. Scarcely were these movements completed, 
when both armies, almost simultaneously opened on each other a ter- 
rific fire from their artillery, which was quickly followed by a shower 
of musket balls from the Mexican infantry. The combatants on both 
sides rushed to the contest with equal vigor; the American regi- 
ments seemed to vie with each other in the deadly strife, and with the 
coolness and firmness of veterans of a hundred battles, they poured 
forth their volleys with fearful precision against their numerous foes. 

30. In the meantime, a body of Mexican cavalry had advanced 
along the defiles of the mountain, and had almost gained a position 
to attack the rear of the Americans. As soon as their movement 

• 

Where *yas Washington's battery placed ? What place did Hardin and Bissel occupy: 
-^28. On the 23d, whaj; took place? What did Santa Jlnnailo? What is said of tin 
ipessenger? After the rcfy, what followed? In sight of each other, what is s;iid rif the 
armies ? While the night wore away, what is said of the combatants? What is said o| 
the Mexicans? Of the American*? — 29. At daybreak, what look place? At the com- 
mencement, what did General T->ylor perceive? To prev< nt this, what did lie do? Wli.u 
did both armies do? What is said of the combatants on both sides? Of lite Americans 

-30. In the meantime, what f.oojc place? What followed? 

29 



338 UNITED STATES. 

was perceived, the American artillery was directed to that quarter, 
and opening upon them its whole fire soon dispersed them. On the 
right, a body of Mexican lancers were repulsed with immense loss. 
The battle now raged with fury ; the very earth trembled beneath the 
American batteries, while the infantry told with terrible eflect upon 
the ranks of the the enemy. Twice the Mexican cavalry rallied, and 
twice they were repulsed with severe loss. On the right, i large 
body of the enemy had gained considerable advantage over one of the 
Illinois, and the second Kentucky regiments ; but at this critical 
moment, Captain Bragg was ordered to their support. This move- 
ment checked the tide of success, and the Mexicans were driven back 
in the utmost confusion. 

31. Night put an end to the contest. The Americans slept upon 
the battle ground, with a determination to renew the conflict in the 
morning. But before the return of day the Mexicans had entirely 
disappeared ; leaving their dead and dying upon the field of battle, 
they had retreated to Jlgua JYueva, and finally to San Luis Potosi. 

The loss of the Mexicans in this battle is estimated at about two 
thousand in killed and wounded. The loss on the side of the Amer- 
icans was two hundred and sixty seven killed and four hundred and 
fifty-six wounded, and twenty three missing. Among the brave 
officers, who fell on that day, none were more lamented than Cob. 
McKee, Harden, Fell, Davis, and Clay, and Captain Lincoln. After 
this victory General Taylor fell back to Monterey. 

32. Shortly after General Taylor had received orders to take up a 
position on the Rio Grande, Congress had authorized the President 
to accept the service of fifty thousand volunteers ; and at the same 
time to increase the regular army. On the 13th of May, 1846, Mr. 
Polk issued a proclamation, stating, " that by the act of the Republic 
of Mexico, a state of war existed between the two governments," and 
called upon the people of the United States to support such mea- 
sures as might be adopted for obtaining a speedy, just and honorable 
peace. About this time the news of the splendid victories of Palo 
Alto and Resaca de la Palma, reached Washington, and Congress 
immediately passed a vote of thanks to General Taylor, and to the 
officers and men under his command ; Taylor at the same time was 
raised to the rank of major-general. 

33. On the 23d of November, 1846, General Scott received instruc- 
tions from the Secretary of War to repair to Mexico, and to take the 
command of the forces there assembled. He immediately departed 
and reached the Rio Grande on the 1st of January, 1847. The first 
operation of General Scott, after reaching Mexico, was the reduction 
of the city of Vera Cruz. But finding the troops under his com 

Wliat is now said of tlie battle? What is said of the Mexican cavalsy ? On the right 
what look place.-' What is sail of this movement?— 31. What is said of the Americans 
Before the return of dav, what happened? What was the loss of the Mexican.*? Wha 
was the lo.-s on the side of the Americans? Name the officers who fell ? — 3-2, SftTtlj 
alter, &c, what had Congress authorized ? On the Kith of May, 1846, what did Mr. l'olh 
issue ? About this lime, what was received at Washington ? What was passed by ("on 
gross 5 — 33. On the 23d of November, what did General Scolt receive? W lien did In 
reach the Rio Grande? What was his first operation ? Finding his troops insufficient 
What did he do 1 



UNITED STATES. 339 

mand insufficient for that purpose, lie withdrew nearly all the regu- 
lar troops from the army under General Taylor. The rendezvous of 
the troops was at the island of Lobos, about one hundred and twen- 
ty live miles north of the city of Vera Cruz. On the 9th of March, 
the troops reached the shore, a little below the city, and on the 22d 
everything was in readiness to commence the siege. 

34. Before commencing operations, however, General Scott sent 
a summons to the Mexican authorities to surrender the city, giving 
at the same time, a certain period to the inhabitants, who wished to 
retire, to depart, and to take with them what property they pleased. 
The summons to surrender being rejected, the American batteries im- 
mediately opened a destructive fire upon the city. The cannonading 
continued from this time, with some slight intermission, until the 
morning of the 26th. The scene is described as one of terrific gran- 
deur. 

The darkness of the night was illumined by the blazing shells 
and flaming rockets, as they poured destruction over the ill-fated 
city; while the roar of the cannon, the crash of the falling houses, 
and the shrieks of the wounded and dying, reechoed across the sur 
rounding country. 

35. On the morning of the 26th, the Mexican governor of the 
city sent a messenger to General Scott, with overtures to surrender; 
and on the following day articles of capitulation were signed. The 
city and the famous castle of San Juan de Ulloa, together with up- 
wards of four thousand prisoners, about seven hundred cannon, and 
nearly ten thousand stand of small arms, fell into the hands of the 
Americans. 

36. While victory was attending the American forces on land, 
their flag was equally triumphant on the ocean. The squadron 
under Commodores Sloat and Stockton was chiefly employed in 
subjugating California, while the squadron under Commodore Con- 
nor was chiefly engaged on the Gulf of Mexico. The cities of 
Tabasco and Frontiera were captured, without making much resist- 
ance. On the day after the surrender of Vera Cruz, an expedition 
was fitted out for the capture of Mvarado, under Commodore Perry, 
who despatched Lieutenant Hunter in advance with a small steamer. 
Hunter, having arrived off the bar, on the afternoon of the same 
day, opened a fire on the fort, which surrendered the next morning. 
He then proceeded up the river, captured ibuir schooners, and on the 
following day anchored off Flacoalpam, a city, at that time, con-, 
taining seven thousand inhabitants, which immediately surrendered. 
When Commodore Perry arrived a few days afterwards, he found 
these important places in the hands of the Americans. 

37. After the reduction of Vera Cruz, General Scott commenced 
his march, with about six thousand men, towards the city of Mexico, 

Where did the troops assemble ? On the 9th of March, what took place ? And on the 
'I'd ?— :M. Before commencing operations, what did Scott do? The summons being 
rejected, what followed? How long did the cannonading continue? What is said of the 
sewr**'— 35 On the morning of the 26th, what took place? What fell into the hands of 
the Americans?— 36. What did the squadron under Stoat and Stockton do? What cities 
were t «k»'H ? On the day after the surrender of Vera Cruz, what took place? What did 
[hiiU'T do ? What did 1'e.ry find:— 37. AP.er the reduction of Vera Cruz, what did Gene- 
ral Scott 'Jo ? 



340 UNITED STATES. 

the capital of the republic. He proceeded with little opposition from 
the 8th to the 10th of April, when he was informed that a strong 
force of the enemy was in front, strongly fortified, on the heights 
of a mountain. No position could be more favorable to the Mexi- 
cans than that which they had selected. The road by which the 
Americans were obliged to ascend, lay among lofty hills, whose tops 
were strongly fortified and garrisoned. The highest of these peaks 
was Cerro Gordo, elevated more than a thousand feet, on which 
stood a battery that commanded the road below. The whole of these 
formidable entrenchments were defended by fifteen thousand men, 
under the command of Santa Anna in person. 

38. On the 16th, General Scolt arrived in front of the Mexican 
works, with about six thousand under his command, but instead of 
advancing along the national road, a road was constructed which 
wound around the base of the mountain, to the right, directly in the 
rear of the enemy, and on the evening of the 17th orders for the 
battle were issued. During the night the Americans succeeded in 
dragging several pieces of their heavy cannon up several heights, 
and as soon as the morning dawned they commenced a tremendous 
fire upon the works of the enemy. An obstinate battle ensued, irj 
which the Mexicans were defeated, their fortifications were stormed 
and the stars and the stripes unfurled from the heights of Cerri 
Gordo. 

39. Santa Jlnna escaped on one of his mules, leaving his carriage 
in the hands of the Americans. The loss of the Mexicans in this 
battle was exceeding great; one thousand two hundred were killed 
and wounded, and more than three thousand prisoners were taken ; 
of this number, two hundred and eighty-eight were officers, and 
five were generals ; besides five thousand stands of arms, and forty 
pieces of cannon fell into the hands of the Americans. The Ameri- 
cans lost sixty-three killed, and three hundred and sixty-eight 
wounded. 

40. On the 19th of April, General Worth entered Jalapa, a city 
situated on the national road, about fifty miles from Vera Cruz, and 
at that time containing a population of thirteen thousand inhabi- 
tants. From this place Worth pushed forward, and on the 22d took 
possession of the citv and castle of Perote, from which the garrison 
had fled, leaving behind them sixty-four guns and mortars, eleven 
thousand and sixty-five cannon balls, fourteen thousand three hun- 
dred bombs, and five hundred muskets. On the 15th of May, Gen- 
eral Worth took possession of the city of Puebla, where General 
Scott remained for the greater part of the summer. Puebla is about 
sixty-six miles from the city of Mexico, and one hundred and eighty - 
six miles from Vera Cruz, and contained at that time about eighty 
thousand inhabitants. 

On the 16th, of what was he informed ? What is said of the position ? Of the road 
What was the highest of these ? By what were these entrenchments defended ?--38. On 
the 16th, what look place? What did he do? On the the 17th, what was done During 
the night, what did the Americans do ? What ensued ?— 39. What is said of Santa 
Anna? What was the loss of the Mexicans in this battle? What did ihc Americans 
>ose?— 4<». On the 19th of April, what took place? On the 22d>what did Worth do? And 
on the 15th of May? Where is Puebla' 



UNITED STATES. 34i 

41. Ill the early part of August, General Scolt resumed his march 
towards the capital of the Mexican republic, having under his com- 
mand about nine thousand men. He met with but little interrup- 
tion until he reached Agolea, about fifteen miles from the city ol 
Mexico. From this place, the road leading to the city is a caus- 
way over a marsh, and the entrance to it commanded by a lofty hill, 
called El Pinnel, which had been strongly fortified. Batteries, mount- 
ing fifty guns, were placed along the sides of this causway, and the 
whole defended by twenty-five thousand men, under the command 
of Santa Anna. In order to avoid these fortifications, General Scolt 
ordered a road to be cut around Lake Chalco, by which General 
IVorlh reached San Augustine on the 17th, a town about nine miies 
south of the city of Mexico. A short distance from this place, on a 
high eminence, called Contreras, General Valencia was stationed with 
a strong force. 

42. On the 19th, continual skirmishes took place, but during the 
night the rain fell in torrents, and caused a temporary suspension 
of arms. Early on the following morning, a furious charge was 
made on the enemy's works. A desperate conflict ensued for a few 
hours. The Mexicans at length wavered, and finally fled in confu- 
sion, leaving the heights of Contreras in the hands of the Americans. 
The loss of the Mexicans in this battle was severe; they left seven 
hundred of their companions dead upon the field of battle, and up- 
wards of eight hundred were taken prisoners; besides this, the 
Americans captured twenty-two pieces of cannon, a number ot 
pack mules, and a large quantity of munitions of war. The loss of 
the Americans amounted to seventy killed and wounded. 

43. After this battle, our army passed rapidly towards Churubuseo. 
At this point the main body of the Mexican army, to the number 
cf twenty-seven thousand men, under the command of Santa Anna, 
lad taken up its position. At one o'clock, in the afternoon, the 
battle commenced. The combatants of both sides rushed to the 
contest, with the utmost ardor. The Americans, encouraged by 
the many battles which they had already gained, fought in the con- 

dence that another victory would attend their arms ; the Mexicans 
felt that the fate of war was against them, nevertheless they knew 
that if they failed on this occasion, their capital would fall into the 
hands of their enemies; therefore they resolved to make a last and 
desperate resistance. 

44. As soon as the action became general the battle raged with 
the utmost fury; the roar of the musketry, and the thunder of the 
cannon shook the very hills, and vibrated for miles across the plains. 
The Americans advanced amidst a most terrific fire, and drove the 
enemy from their guns at the point of the bayonet. After the bat- 

41 . What did General Scott do ? What is said of his progress ? From this place, what 
is said of the mad ? What were placed alon^ the sid' j s ? How was it defended f To 
avoid this, what did •- cott order? What was Blationed a short distance from this placer 
— 42. On the l9th, what too* place? And on the following morning ? What is said ol 
the Mexican-? What was the loss on both sides ?— 43 After this hattle, what did out 
army do? What is said of this place ? What is said of the combatants ? Of the Ameri- 
cans? Tht Mexicans ?— 44. What is said of the battle - Of the Americans' Of th* 
Mexicans? 



342 UNITED STATES. 

tie had raged for aTout two hours the Mexicans were completely 
routed, and (led with precipitation to the walls of their capital. This 
battle was attended with heavy loss on both sides. The Mexicans 
lost nearly two thousand in killed, wounded and prisoners; while 
our loss amounted to one thousand and fifty- five in killed and 
wounded. Among the prisoners taken in this battle, was Sergeant 
Riley, with seventy others, who had deserted from the American 
lines. They were all tried by a court martial, and fifty of them, 
being found guilty of high treason, were hanged in the presence of 
both armies. The remainder, including their leader, were publicly 
whipped and branded. 

45. On the 20th, a negotiation was opened between the two 
armies, which resulted in an armistice, providing for a cessation of 
hostilities, and an exchange of prisoners. During the armistice, 
Mr. Trist, the American commissioner, offered a proposition in 
behalf of his government, for settling the difficulties between the 
two countries. The proposition was rejected by Mexico, and Gene 
ral Scott, finding that the Mexicans were fortifying the city, iij 
direct violation of the armistice, declared it at an end on the 10th ol 
September, and made immediate arrangements for recommencing 
hostilities. 

46. In the meantime the Mexicans had strongly entrenched them- 
selves at a place called Molino del Rey, or the King's Mill. The 
place was surrounded by a regular field-work, mounted by ten pieces 
of artillery, and the whole defended by ten thousand men. The for- 
tification, however, was stormed and taken by General Worth., at 
the head of three thousand seven hundred Americans. On the 
13lh, the fortress of Chapultepec, which was considered the key to 
the Mexican lines, was taken by the Americans after a desperate 
conflict. 

47. After the fall of Chapullepec, Generals Smith and Quitman 
marched rapidly on towards the city of Mexico, although they suf- 
fered severely from the enemy's batteries, stationed along the road , 
and on the 14th, the.y entered the city, driving the enemy before 
th<?m at the point of the bayonet. In the meantime, General Worth's 
division had filed round to the left, and entered the city by the gate 
oi' San Cosmo. The next morning at sun rise the American forces 
marched into the great Plaza, in front of the Cathedral, and pre- 
cisely at seven o'clock, on the 15th of September, 1847, the Star- 
Spangled Banner was elevated in triumph over the capital of the 
Mexican Republic. Of the ten thousand troops with which Genera, 
Scott left Puebla, only about seven thousand remained to witness 
his entry into Mexico. 

48. After the fall of the capital, no important battles took place; 
skirmishing continued for a few days, but hostilities gradually sub- 

What was the loss on both sides ? Who was among the prisoners ? What was done 
wuli them ?— 45. On the 20lh, what took place ? During the armistice, what was offered? 
What followed its rejection? — 4G. In the meantime, what was done? What is said 01 
".he place? What is said of the fortifications? On the 13th, what took place?— 47. After 
the fall ol* Chapultepec, what followed? In the meantime, what did General WorthH 
division do? What took place the ne.xt morning? Of the ten thousand troops, &c., how 
man} remained ?— 48. Afte: the fall of the capital, what followed? 



UNITED STATES. 343 

tided. A treaty of peace between Mexico and the United States 
was signed by the plenipotentiaries of both nations at the city of 
Guaditlovpe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848. This treaty was 
afterwards amended by the Congress of the United States, and rati- 
fied by Mexico; and the respective ratifications were interchanged 
at Queretaro on the 3d of May, 1848. By this treaty the boundary 
line between Mexico and the United States commences in the Gulf 
of Mexico, three leagues from land, and proceeds from thence up 
the middle of the Rio Grande,' to the southern boundary of Mexico; 
from thence to the western termination ; thence along its western 
line until it intersects the river Gila, down that river until it empties 
into the Rio Colorado, then across the Colerado, following the divi- 
sion line between Upper and Lower California, to the Pacific ocean 



SECTION VIII. 
The administrations of Taylor, Fillmore and Pierce. 

1. The presidential election, in 1848, resulted in the choice of 
General Zachary Taylor to the office of President of the United 
States. Millard Fillmore, of New York, was at the same time 
elected Vice-President. John M. Clayton, of Delaware, was ap- 
pointed Secretary of State; and William M.Meredith, of Pennsyl- 
vania, Secretary of the Treasury. During the previous Congress, 
a new office, called the Home Department, and intended to aid the 
Secretary of the Treasury, had been created, and the President 
selected Mr. Evving, of Ohio, to fill the newly created department. 

2. The short administration of President Taylor was not marked 
by any events of striking importance. During the first year after 
his election, the people of California, met and framed a state consti- 
tution, and in the following Congress applied for admission into the 
Union. In the meantime the discussion of the slavery question 
caused much excitement throughout the country. In April, 1850, 
a select committee was appointed in the Senate of the United States 
to prepare a bill for the purpose of producing harmony in the na- 
tional councils. Of this committee, Henry Clay was chairman. The 
chief features of the bill reported by this committee, and known as 
the " Omnibus Bill," were the admission of California, a territorial 
government of Utah and New Mexico, and the abolition of the 
slave-trade in the District of Columbia. After a protracted dis- 
cussion, the bill was reduced to ah act for the establishment of a 
territorial government in Utah. 

3. On the 9th of July, 1850, the whole country wa3 thrown 
into mourning by the sad announcement of the death of President 

Where and when was a treaty of peace signed ? What is further observed t By tbis 
treaty, what is the boundary between the two countries? 

1. Who were elected President and Vice-President, in 1848? During the previous 
Concress, what had been done ?— 2. What was done during the first year of Tiis adminis- 
tration ? What question caused much excitement, and what was proposed ? What were 
Cue features of this bill.-- 3 When and where did President Taylor die? 



344 UNITED STATES. 

Taylor. This melancholy event took place at the presidential man 
sion, in Washington, after a short illness of five days. 

4. By the death of General Taylor, the Vice-President, Mr. Fill- 
Tnore, under the provisions of the constitution, became President of 
the United States. The cabinet of the late President having resigned, 
a now one was formed with Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, 
as Secretary of State. During the following session of Congress, 
the compromise measures, which had been embraced in the " Om- 
nibus Bill," were brought forward separately, and received th< 
sanction of that body, thus happily allaying the excitement that had 
so much agitated the country. 

5. During the spring of 1851 a second expedition for the inva- 
sion of Cuba was projected. The President, on receiving intelligence 
of the intended expedition, issued a proclamation, warning all those 
of our citizens, who should take part in it, that by the very act of 
thus violating the laws of neutrality, they would put themselves 
beyond the protection of the United States. Notwithstanding this 
warning, a body of about four hundred and sixty men, under the 
command of General Lopez, sailed from New Orleans, in August, 
and landed in Cuba. Contrary to their expectations, the people;, 
instead of uniting with them, fled at their approach, and refused to 
give any assistance; and the invaders being attacked by a superior 
force, were either killed in battle, or made prisoners. Lopez hav 
ing fallen with the rest into the hands of the Cuban authorities, 
was conducted to Havana, and executed. The Americans wno sur- 
vived, after remaining some months in prison, were liberated and 
returned to this country. 

6. In June, 1852, the Democratic convention met in Baltimore, 
and nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, for the office of 
President of the United States, and William R. King, of Alabama, 
for the Vice-Presidency ; and at the election in the following Novem- 
ber, these gentlemen were elected to these respective offices. 

This year was rendered memorable for the deaths of two distin- 
guished men. On the 29th of June, Henry Clay died in Wash- 
ton, and in the following November, Daniel Webster departed this 
life at his residence in Massachusetts. 

7. On the 4th of March, 1853, President Pierce entered on the 
duties of his office. He selected Wm. L. Marcy, of New York, as 
Secretary of State. On the 18th of April following, Mr. King, the 
Vice-President, died shortly after his return from Cuba, where he 
had gone for the benefit of his healtn. 

During the early part of the year 1853 a dispute occurred between 
the United States and Mexico, respecting a portion of territory called 
the Mesilla Valley. General Lane, Governor of New Mexico, took 
possession of the disputed territory, and the Mexican <*overnment 

4. Who became President on the death of General Taylor? Daring the following year 
what was done ? — 5. What was projected in the spring of 1851 .-* What was the result, 
and the fate of Lopez 5 — 6. Who was elected President and Vice-President, in lfc52 : 
Tiy what was this year rendered memorable ?— 7. What took place on vh» 4th of Maich 
When did the Vice-President die ? In the eaily part of 1853, wait happened between 
ibe United States and Mexico 



UNITED STATES. 343 

prepared to enforce its right by an appeal to arms. The difficulty, 
however, was happily settled, by Mexico yielding her right to the 
Mesilla Valley, and granting to the United States the right to build 
a railroad across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, for the sum of ten 
million dollars. 

8. During the year 1854 several important treaties were concluded 
by the United States with foreign governments. With a view ot 
establishing a friendly and commercial intercourse between the United 
States and Japan, Commodore Perry had been sent with an American 
fleet to that country, and succeeded in arranging a treaty of peace and 
amity. This treaty was concluded and signed on the 31st of Match, 
1854, and by it the Japanese ports of Simoda and Hakodadi were 
opened to American vessels to obtain provisions and fuel; and safety 
and protection were guaranteed to all American seamen cast upon 
the Japanese coast, besides the right of a place of burial for Ameri- 
cans who might die in that country. About the same time a recipro- 
cal treaty of commerce between the United States and the British 
provinces of North America, was concluded, and a treaty with 
Russia, by which that government recognized the doctrine that 
"free ships make free goods," and that the property of neutrals, 
unless contraband articles, should be respected, even if carried on 
board enemies' vessels. 

9. During the early part of the year 1854 some difficulty occurred 
between the United States and the authorities of San Juan, or Grey- 
town, on the Mosquito shore. The Transit Company had demanded 
of the authorities of the town an indemnity for certain property, 
alleged to have been stolen or destroyed by natives, and during the 
controversy a negro was shot by an American named Smith, the 
captain of a steamer tunning on the river. An attempt was made 
to arrest the offender, but it was resisted on the part of the passen- 
gers, among whom was Mr. Borland, the United States minister to 
Nicaragua. Mr. Borland subsequently going on shore, was assailed 
by the inhabitants of Greytown, and ia the melee that followed was 
struck in the face by a bottle. 

• 10. As soon as this outrage was made known at Washington, 
orders were dispatched to Captain Hollins, commander of the sloop 
of war Cyane, not only to demand an apology from the authorities 
of Greytown, but also an indemnity to the Transit Company. No 
regard being paid to these demands, Hollins, after several days delay, 
opened his batteries against the town, and in a few hours completely 
destoyed it. This conduct on the part of our government was severely 
censured, and denounced as an act of severity entirely uncalled for 
Ly the circumstances of the ^ase. 

11. During the last year of Alt. Pierce's administration troubles 
of a serious nature arose in Kansas. In February, 185G, the Presi- 
dent issued a proclamation stating that combinations had been formed 
in the territory to subvert the legal authority, and warned all persons 

& In 1Ro4, wiiat important treaties were signed ? At the same time what other treaty 
was, concluded. 3 — 9. During the early part of 1854, what difficulty occurred beiweei: the 
United States and Pan Juan ?— 10. VYhat orders did Captain Hollins receive, and w»at 
Cbijowcd r— 11. In 185G, what proclamation did the President issue in rela'iun to Kansas? 



816 UNITED STATES. 

engaged therein to desist therefrom, and at the same time directed 
the United States troops at Forts Leavenworth and Riley, to be in 
readiness to obey the requisition of Governor Shannon, in maintain- 
ing the peace of the territory. The free state men had, in October 
previous, met at Topeka, and framed a constitution excluding slavery 
from the territory, and under this constitution they elected a gov- 
ernor, iieutenant-governor, and a state legislature. This body met at 
Lawrence and elected Governor Reeder and General Lane, United 
States Senators. In the meantime, indictments for treason were 
made out against Mr. Robinson, the free state governor, who im- 
mediately fled from the territory. Shortly after this, sheriff Jones, 
who had some time previously been severely wounded in an attempt 
to arrest two persons at Lawrence, entered that town at the head of a 
large force, and after taking all the arms in the place, ordered the 
hotel and printing office to be destroyed, they having been declared 
nuisances by the grand jury. At the same time the house of Gov- 
ernor Robinson was destroyed, and numerous acts of murder and 
robbery were subsequently committed throughout the territory. 

12. In the meantime a new election for delegates for a convention 
to frame a State constitution took place. This body met at Lecomp- 
ton in the fall of 1857, and after several weeks' deliberation adopted 
a constitution tolerating slavery within the territory. This constitu- 
tion was submitted to and ratified by the people, and during the sub- 
sequent Congress application was made for the admission of Kansas 
into the Union under the Lecompton constitution. After a long dis- 
cussion in Congress, and much excitement throughout the country, 
a bill was passed on the 30th of April, 1858, admitting Kansas with 
the Lecompton constitution, with a proviso that the question of 
slavery should first be submitted to a vote of the people of the terri- 
tory, and if the majority of the votes were in favor of the slavery 
clause, then Kansas should me admitted with the Lecompton con- 
stitution ; but if the slavery clause should be rejected, the question 
of her admission was to be considered as rejected. This question 
was subsequently submitted to the people, and the result was the 
rejection of the clause establishing slavery in the territory. 

13. In the fall of 1856 an election for President and Vice-Presi- 
dent took place, and after an exciting contest, resulted in the election 
jf the democratic candidates, Mr James Buchanan and Mr. John C. 
Breckenridge, to the offices of President and Vice-President of the 
United States. The other candidates were Mr. Fremont, Republican, 
and Mr. Fillmore, American. The latter received only the electoral 
/ote of a single state, that of Maryland. Mr. Buchanan was inaugu- 
ated on the 4th of March, 1857, and selected Mr. Cass, of Michi- 
gan, as Secretary of State. 

What did the Free State men do? What is related of Sheriff Jones?— 12. In the mean 
time, what took place? After a long discussion, what did Congress do? What was Ihe 
result of the election ?— 13. In 1856, who were elected to the offices of President and 
Vice-President? Who were the other candidates' When did Mr. Buchanan take his 
•eat? 



UxMTED STATES. 347 



SECTION IX. 

Administrations of Buchanan and Lincoln; Civil war ; Assassination 
of the President. 

1. If Mr. Buchanan's administration was peaceful, still the clouds 
that had been gathering for years on the political horizon, arrived sil 
their culminating point during the latter part of his term, and were 
soon to burst, deluging the country with blood, and plunging it into 
all the horrors of a fratricidal war. The antagonism between the anti- 
slavery party at the North and the Southern slaveholders, had hitherto 
expanded itself in violent speeches on the floor of Congress, and no 
less violent and inflammatory appeals to the passions of the people, 
through the agency of the press. The two parties were brought in 
presence and the threatened conflict made imminent, by the election 
of Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, to the Presidency, 
Nov. 4, 1860. 

2. The Southern States took alarm at this advent to power, of a 
party inimical to the institution upon which they believed their pros- 
perity to rest. The oft mooted question of secesssion was now openly 
discussed, and conventions were called in the several states, which, in 
all cases, by a large majority, voted an ordinance of secession. The 
leading states in this movement were South Carolina, Mississippi, 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. These were sub- 
sequently followed by Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Ten- 
neesee. Kentucky saw her people divided, and her soil desecrated by 
local civil strife. The representatives of the seceding states having 
met in convention at Montgomery, (Alabama J organized the Pn> 
visional Government of the Confederate States of America, and elected 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President. 

3. This final step, however, was not taken before an effort to con- 
ciliation had been made. The Southern Representatives in Congress 
were instructed to demand guarantees for the future, from the friends 
of the in-coming administration. Virginia, the "Mother of States," 
remained for some time as a voluntary mediator. But the secret 
determination of both parties made the result inevitable. The seced- 
ing states had, as a precautionary measure, taken possession of most 
of the Federal ports on their respective territory, as well as of all the 
public property. The United States, however, still retained posses- 
sion of several strong positions, such as Forties Monroe, in Virginia ; 
Fort Pickens, in Florida, and Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. An 
attempt having been made by the government to send supplies to the 
last-named fort, it was attacked on the 12lh of April, 1861, by the 
Confederate batteries of Charleston, commanded by Gen. Beauregard. 
The fort surrendered, and was evacuated on the 13th. This was the 
first gun fired, that was destined to be the signal of the most disastrous 
war that has ever raged in any country. Events are too recent to 

1. What happened towards the close of Mr. Buchanan's administration' — 
2. How did the Southern States receive the election of Mr. Lincoln! 1 What 
states seceded? Wh;it action did they take?— 3. What measures did the seced 
ing states adopt? What was the first, act of hostility? 



348 UNITED STATES. 

allow the historian to write an impartial appreciation of their causes 
and results. We must be content to record facts simply as we find 
them, and let posterity judge. 

4. The first act of President Lincoln, after the fall of Fort Sumter, 
was the issuing of a proclamation, calling for 75,000 volunteers to put 
down the rebellion. Little was it thought then, how many hundred 
thousands would be required to carry on the titanic struggle, during 
the four years it lasted. The first shock of arms took place on the 
soil of Virginia, on the 10th of June. Gen. B. P. Butler having 
started from Newport News Avith a column of 5,000 infantry, to 
march on Yorktown, found 1,200 Confederates, under General (then 
Colonel) Magruder, intrenched at a church called Great Bethel. The 
advance of the Federals, led by Colonel Winthrop, charged the 
breastworks in gallant style, but were repulsed with great slaughter. 
They returned to Newport. On the 21st of July, was fought the first 
grand battle, made famous under the name of Battle of Manassas. 
The Federals, under General McDowell, met tne Confederates under 
Generals Beauregard and Johnston, near a stream called Bull Run. 
The result was the total route of the Union army, which fell back in 
disorder upon Washington. The. Confederates, it is said, could have 
taken the Capital if they had pursued the enemy, but they lacked 
cavalry, and remained content with the possession of the field of 
battle, thereby reaping lie fruits from their victory. On the 21st of 
September, the battle of Ball's Bluff (Virginia) was fought. The 
Union forces, under General Banks, were defeated by the Confede- 
rates, under Colonel Jenifer. The Federal General Baker was killed 
whilst gallantly heading his division. 

5. During the remainder of the year 1861, little fighting was done; 
but the Federal government was preparing earnestly for the cam- 
paign of 1862. The Federals opened this campaign with 450,000, 
operating simultaneously in Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and 
Kentucky. The Confederates do not seem to have been fully awake 
to the magnitude of the task before them, although their armies were 
swelled by enthusiastic volunteers during the first year. These were 
twelve-month troops, and their time was nearly out, when their gov- 
ernment passed the Conscription Bill, calling to arms all men under 
thirty-five years of age. A series of disasters to the Southern arms 
inaugurated the year 1862. General Grant attacked Fort Donelson, 

n the Cumberland river, and took it, after four days siege; the Con- 
federate General, Buckne'r, surrendering with the garrison. In April 
following, Grant being at Pittsburg Landing with his army, awaiting 
the arrival of General Buell's corps, was suddenly attacked by the 
Confederates, under Generals Beauregard and Albert Sidney Johns- 
ton. The Southerners had made a forced march to surprise the enemy 
before the arrival of the expected reinforcements, and very nearly suc- 
ceeded in the daring attempt, for they took part of the Federal camp, 

4. What was Mr. Lincoln's first act? Where did the first shock of arms lake 
place ? With what result? What was the first great battle of the war ? What bat- 
tle was next fought? — 5. What was the situation during the first year of the war? 
What success was gained by General Grant in 18C2? Wiiat occurred at Pittsburg; 
Landing? 



UNITED STATES. 349 

many cannon, and prisoners ; but night put, temporarily, an end to 
the conflict, and during the night General Buell arrived. The tables 
were turned, when the battle re-commenced next morning; the Con- 
federate forces, in their turn, were inferior in number, and worn with 
the fatigue of the previous day. They were compelled to abandon 
the field, after losing some of the artillery taken in the first battle. 
The most stubborn valor was evinced in both rights, and the slaughter 
on both sides was terrific. The Confederates had to mourn the loss 
of one of their best generals, Albert Sidney Johnston. These battles 
are known as the first and second battle of Shiloh. 

6. A few days after this disaster, the Confederacy received another 
fatal blow. Commodore Farragut's fleet having succeeded in passing 
the forts at the mouth of the Mississippi, compelled the surrender of 
New Orleans, evacuated by General Lovell. The city was unde- 
fended, and General Butler, who arrived soon after the fleet, took 
quiet possession. By the fall of this important city, the Confederacy 
lost all hopes of controlling influence in the West, although they still 
prevented the free navigation of the Mississippi. 

7. Whilst these events were transpiring in the South-west, a Fed- 
eral army of 120.000, under General McClellan, was directed upon 
Richmond, (Virginia,) which had been made the capital of the Con- 
federacy. This army, concentrated at Fortress Monroe, took up its 
march across the Peninsula. The first obstacle they met was at the 
old city of Yorktown, famous in history as the place where Lord Corn- 
wallis surrendered his army to Washington. This point had been 
strongly fortified by General Magruder, and although he had but a 
small garrison, the imposing aspect of the works arrested General 
McClellan, when he arrived on the 4th of April, and gave time for 
the army of Virginia, under General Jos. Johnston, to be sent hur- 
riedly to Yorktown. McClellan commenced siege operations, and 
labored during the whole month of April ; but just as he was ready 
for a general assault, Johnston evacuated Yorktown, (May 3d.) The 
invading army lost no time in pursuing the Confederate columns, and 
overtook them near Williamsburg. From that place to Richmond, 
the march was marked by a number of partial engagements, Johns- 
ton's policy seeming to have been to weaken the Federal army, by 
strategic movements calculated to delay them near the noxious 
swamps of the Chickahominy. At last, General McClellan arrived 
almost in sight of Richmond, and then commenced the series of bloody 
conflicts known as the "seven days' fights." Robert E. Lee had 
succeeded Johnston in command, the latter having been badly 
wounded, and now, the Confederates took the offensive. Stonewall 
Jackson's corps, secretly recalled from north-western Virginia, fell on 
McClellan's rear, and the pursuing army now became the pursued ; 
General McClellan trying to reach the James river, where to establish 

Relate the two battles of Shiloh? — G. What happened a few days later? What 
was the consequence, to the Confederates, of the fall of New Orleans? — 7. What 
general marched on Richmond? What road did he take? What obstacle did lie 
meet'.' What about the siege of Yorktown? How. was the retreat cf the Con- 
federates conducted? What general took commaud of the Southern army? 
What occurred before Richmond Y 

30 



350 UNITED STATES. 

a new base of operations, and General Lee endeavoring to cut him 
off. At last, General McClellan reached a stong position at Malvern 
Hill, and saved the remnant of his once fine army, for the continual 
losses, not merely by battle, but from disease, had terribly reduced its 
ranks. 

8. The Confederates now sought to transfer the war to Northern 
soil. Lee drove back General Pope, and won the second battle of 
Manassas, (or Bull Run,) on the 30th of August. He entered Mary- 
land, and was opposed by McClellan at Antietam, September 17th. 
This dreadful battle was a Federal success, and Lee fell back, on the 
following night, across the Potomac. The slaughter on both sides 
was horrible. In November, General Burnside took command of the 
Federal army, and commenced another march on Richmond. He 
met Lee at Fredericksburg, (December 18th,) and was led on to attack 
the Confederate works near the city. Received by a fearful fire of 
infantry and artillery, his army was badly cut up, and compelled to 
evacuate Fredericksburg. During the same month, the Confederates 
suffered a great reverse in Tennessee in the loss of the battle of Mur- 
free.sboro. The Union forces were commanded by General Rose- 
crans, the Confederates by General Bragg. 

9. No important movements took place until the ensuing spring, 
when General Hooker was put in command of the Federal army of 
the Potomac. He met General Lee on the 3d of May, 1863, at 
Chancellorsville, on ground of his own choosing, and gave him bat- 
tle. The Federals were driven back across the Rappahannock, the 
Confederates retaining the dearly-bought field. This victory was 
overshadowed by the deepest gloom, for, Stonewall Jackson, one of 
the most beloved Southern leaders, was killed, accidentally, after the 
battle, by the fire of his own pickets, who., in the darkness, mistook 
him for the enemy. 

10. The Confederates, struggling against dreadful odds, their ports 
blockaded, their soil overrun and devastated, resolved to make a supreme 
effort to transfer the scene of woe to Northern soil. To this effect, 
General Lee once more crossed the Potomac, and marched north- 
ward, through Maryland and Pennsylvania. At Gettysburg, in the 
latter State, he met the Federals, under General Meade. There was 
fought the most terrific battle of the war. It commenced on the 
morning of the 1st of July, and ended on the evening of the 3d. 
During these three days' carnage, victory seemed to waver between 
the contending armies; finally, General Lee, having exhausted his 
ammunition, was compelled to withdraw from the conflict; he had 
lost 30,000 men in killed, prisoners and stragglers. The Federals, 
also, had suffered to such an extent that they did not molest the retir- 
ing foe. 

"Where did General McClellan save his army? — 8. What generals commanded 
at the second battle of Manassas ? When was it fought? What about the battle of 
Antietam ? The battle of Fredericksburg? What battle was fought in Tennessel 
9. What great buttle was fought in May, 1803? With what success? What great 
general did the Confederates lose? — 10. What was the condition of the Confede- 
-ates after the battle of Chancellorsville? What did they resolve? What great 
oattle was fought in Pennsylvania? With what result? 



UNITED STATES. 351 

11. The adverse fortune which persecuted the Confederate arms in 
Virginia, was dealinsr them, at the same time, a crushing blow on the 
Mississippi river. The Southerners had fortified Vicksburg (Miss.) 
and Port Hudson, (Louisiana,) thus shutting the navigation of the 
Mississippi and guarding the mouth of Red river, a valuable channel 
of communication with the trans-Mississippi department, whence 
they derived their best source of supplies. An expedition was gotten 
up in New Orleans, against Port Hudson, by the combined army and 
fleet of General Banks and Commodore Farragut, whilst General 
Grant moved on Vicksburg*. On the 14th of March, General Banks' 
advance engaged the Confederate pickets near Port Hudson ; and on 
the same night, at 11 o'clock, Commodore Farragm's fleet attacked 
the river defences. The Commodore's flag ship, Hartford, with 
another vessel, the Albatross, lashed to it, succeeded in passing the 
batteries under cover of the darkness, but the other vessels, severely 
crippled, had to renounce the attempt and to float down the stream. 
The steam frigate Mississippi, running aground opposite the batteries, 
was set on fire and burned to the water's edge. General Banks did 
not attack, but moved rapidly back to Baton Rouge, whence he 
crossed, some time later, into western Louisiana, overran that coun- 
try, and re-crossed the Mississippi above Port Hudson. During the 
intervening period, the greater part of the garrison was ordered off to 
strengthen General Pemberton's army, which defended the approaches 
to Vicksburg, and when the events about to be recorded took place, 
in May, the garrison of Port Hudson was reduced to about 5,000 
men, under General Frank Gardner. On the 8ih of that month, the 
fleet came in view, and took a position some four miles below the 
town. Six mortar boats and five vessels of war commenced the bom- 
bardment, which was to last until the end of the siege. On the 21st, 
General Banks completed the investment of Port Hudson. 

12. Despatches now reached the Confederate commander, ordering 
the evacuation of Port Hudson; but it was too late. A council of 
war, summoned by the commander, took the following points in con- 
sideration : That General Grant, with superior forces, was pressing 
Pemberton in Vicksburg; that the junction of Banks' 30,000 men 
with Grant's 100,000 would make the fall of Vicksburg certain ; that 
the little garrison of Port Hudson, although hopeless of final success, 
could serve more effectually the Confederacy, by detaining General 
Banks, than by cutting their way through his forces. The officers 
resolved to accomplish the sacrifice, and the garrison, in pursuance of 
that resolution, held the place forty-eight days. Meanwhile, defeated 
at Black river, General Pemberton had retired into Vicksburg with 
30,000 men. But, despairing of receiving aid from General Johnston, 
the department commander, he surrendered Vicksburg on the 4th of 
July (1863.) The astounding news reached Port Hudson on the 8th, 
and it having been officially communicated to General Gardner by 

11. How about the state of affairs at that time, on the Mississippi river? 
Describe the naval attack? Where did General Banks operate aftervrards? 
How was Port Hudson invested ? — 12. Why did the garrison resolve to defend 
the place? What were, meanwhile, General Pemberton's movements? What 
Mas the fate of Vicksburg? Of Port Hudson? 



352 UNITED STATES. 

Genera. Banks, the former considered the further effusion of blood as 
unnecessary, and surrendered, with all the honors of war, on the 9th 
of July. There remained of the garrison but two thousand men fit 
for duty ; their ammunition was exhausted, three-fourths of their guns 
dismounted, and they had been living for the past three weeks on half a 
pound of mule meat and three ears of corn daily to each man. On the 
very night of the 8th, after the terms of capitulation had been agreed 
upon, General Banks sent in 4,000 rations to the famished garrison. 

13. The resources of the South, both as to men and supplies, were 
now nearly exhausted. New levies were made, and boys left their 
college books to take their place by the side of gray-headed old men ; 
but it was only to protract the struggle in a doomed cause. The 
North, with her large population and the flow of immigration from 
Europe, kept swelling the ranks of her armies, whilst, with her rich 
granaries, her arsenals and manufactures, and the ports of the whole 
world opened to her, she had inexhaustible sources of supplies. In 
1864, she had 600,000 men in the field. General Sherman's army of 
Tennessee took up his march from Chattanooga on Atlanta (Georgia,) 
the great centre of railroad communication in the South; General 
Sigel occupied the Shenandoah valley, while two armies marched on 
Richmond and Petersburg, the key to its approach. Although Gen- 
eral-Johnston disputed the ground inch by inch, he could not stay 
General Sherman's triumphant march through the very heart of the 
Confederacy. His successor, General Hood, tried to divert the atten- 
tion of Sherman, by moving into Tennessee; but the wily Federal 
commander did not change his plans. Hood nearly lost his little army 
in an attack on Franklin. Meanwhile, Sherman did not winter at 
Atlanta, as was supposed to be his intention, but took up his march 
in the direction of the Atlantic coast, destroying the railroads, and 
burning the mills and the crops. He took Savannah, caused the 
evacuation of Charleston, the proud city which had held for more 
than a year against fleet and army, overran the two Carolinas, leaving 
ruins and devastation behind him, and thus cut off the last resources 
of supplies for Lee's army. 

14. General Grant, now Lieutenant-General, in supreme command 
of the armies of the United States, had steadily pursued his plan of 
operations against Richmond. Battles had followed battles, with 
alternate success ; but whilst the Confederate forces were being slowly 
reduced, the Federal army kept increasing, by continual reinforce- 
ments. The bloody battle of Five Forks, fought on the 1st of April, 
decided the result. Lee ordered the evacuation of Richmond and 
Petersburg, and commenced retreating, pursued by Grant. On the 
9th of April, 1865, the shattered remnants of the army of Virginia 
surrendered. This was the virtual ending of the war; the last hopes 
of the Confederacy had long been centered in that army, and where- 

13. What was the respective condition of the two contending parties at the close 
of 1863? With what, forces did the North open the campaign of ISO I, and what 
disposition was made of them? Describe Sherman's campaign and its results? 
14. What was General Grant doing, meanwhile? What battle hastened the end 
of the war? What happened on the 9th of April, 1S05? What were the imme- 
diate consequences of the surrender? 



THE MEXICAN WAR. 353 

ever the news of its surrender reached the Confederate commanders, 
they ceased all resistance and laid down their arms. Officers and 
men were paroled and disbanded, in accordance with the terms ot 
General Lee's surrender. 

15. Almost simultaneously with the exciting news of the return of 
peace, a thrill of horror was sent throughout the land by 'lie report 
of the assassination of President Lincoln, shot in Ford's Theatre, 
"Washington. Mr. Lincoln had recently been re-elected for another 
term ; Vice-President Andrew Johnson was inaugurated President. 
Jefferson Davis, the President of the Southern Confederacy, was 
made prisoner, soon after the surrender, and taken to Fortress Mon- 
roe, where he was held in captivity until the spring of 1867, when 
he was brought into court and admitted to bail. 

16. The most important result of the war has been the abolishment 
of slavery throughout the hitherto slaveholding slates. The immense 
resources of the country have been developed and made known to 
the world. On the other hand, the government has become burthened 
with a heavy debt, and the Southern States, whose wealth flowed so 
freely into the national treasury, are desolated and impoverished. 
Thousands from North and South have perished, and many are the 
homes made desolate, many the hearts broken by sorrow. War has 
left its mark on this once prosperous and happy land. The work of 
reconstruction has been progressing slowly in these two past years, 
but the wounds are still bleeding, and can only be healed bv the hand 
of Time. 

17. The most important event, since the close of the war, has been 
the acquisition made by the United States, of the vast extent of 
country hitherto known as Russian America. 



THE MEXICAN WAR. 

European Expedition against Mexico ; the victorious French in the 
Capital; the Empire established ; Withdrawal of the French ; Suc- 
cess of the Liberals; a Military Judas; Execution of Emperor 
Maximilian. 

1. The Republic of Mexico may be called the land of revolutions. 
Since that unfortunate country achieved its independence, it has been 
in an almost continual state of anarchy. There can be no national 
prosperity where there is no stability in the government, no security 
to be found under the law ; and internai dissensions and strife have so 

15. What isvent crime was perpetrated in Washington? Who succeeded Mr. 
Lincoln ? What was the fate of Mr. Davis? — 16. What are the important results 
of the war?— 17. What important transaction has taken place since the war? 

1. What is said about Mexico? 

30* 



354 THE MEXICAN WAR. 

paralyzed the vast resources of Mexico, that, with her immense area 
of rich soil, her inexhaustible mines and her numerous seaports, she 
occupies but an insignilicant place among the nations of the world. 
She has dropped to the rear of civilization, and her people, ignorant 
and debased, evince the barbarous instincts of the savage under the 
garb of Christianity. 

2. In 1861, Benito Juarez, President of the Republic, involved his 
country into a foreign war, by various arbitrary measures, such as 
annulling or suspending obligations contracted by the government in 
Europe, despoiling resident foreigners, and also, by the unjust and 
illegal spoliation of the church property. France, England and 
Spain resolved to act jointly in obtaining satisfaction for the common 
wrong, and sent a fleet to Mexico. The expedition was successful, 
and the allies gained a footing en the Eastern coasts of Mexico ; but 
some disagreement having arisen among them, England and Spain 
then withdrew their vessels, and the French were left alone to carry 
on the war. 

3. The emperor Napoleon conceived the grand idea of regenerating 
a nation. The moment was opportune; the United States who 
w r ould have seen with a jealous eye any attempt of a European power 
to gain influence on the American continent, were plunged into an 
all-absorbing civil war. He sent an army to Mexico, under com- 
mand of General Forey, an officer of eminent merit. The French 
opened the campaign with their usual impetuosity and gained a series 
of brilliant victories. In June, 1863, General Forey made his trium- 
phant entry into the city of Mexico. The notables of the capital, 
representing mostly the conservative party, assembled at the invita 
tion of the French general, and voted for an imperial form of govern- 
ment as the most conducive to the prosperity and tranquility of their 
country. They then drew up an address offering the imperial crown 
to the archduke Maximilian, brother of Francis Joseph, emperor of 
Austria, and son-in-law of the king of Belgium, a prince of amiable 
qualities and sterling worth, connected by the ties of consanguinity 
with nearly all the crowned heads of Europe. 

4. A deputation was immediately sent to Europe, on a French 
vessel of war, to make the formal offer of the crown to Prince Maxi- 
milian. He demanded time to consider, and required the vote of the 
Mexican people to be taken, as he would not become their ruler 
against their wish. After the necessary delay, a second deputation 
was sent, which gave Maximilian all the guarantees he desired. He 
renounced formally all his rights to the succession of the crown of 
Austria, and embarked with his amiable consort, the Princess Car- 
lotta. The imperial pair entered the city of Mexico in May, 1864, 
amidst the acclamations of the people. By a prior agreement the 
emperor was to have a foreign legion composed of Austrians and 
Belgians, and France had pledged herself to leave her army in Mexico 
lor two years longer. 

2. What happened in 1861? — 3. What was the success of the French? What 
determination did the notables of Mexico take? — i. Upon what conditions did 
Maximilian accept the crown ? What followed ? 



THE MEXICAN WAR. 355 

5. The empire had every prospect of success. The liberals had 
been repeatedly vanquished, and Juarez had retired in the mountains. 
The new emperor immediately turned his attention to developing the 
resources of the country, and promoting the welfare of his subjects. 
Notwithstanding the continuation of hostilities, an era of prosperity 
seemed to dawn on Mexico; it is a stated fact that at no time there 
had been so much land in cultivation, so many manufactures in suc- 
cessful operation, and so many public works in execution, as during 
the years 1865 and 1866. Maximilian adopted several wise mea- 
sures, but he made a fatal mistake; he recognized the validity of 
Bales of church property, made by order of the former government, 
and this measure alienated from him the majority of the conser- 
vative or church party, without gaining, as he probably had hoped, 
the sympathies of the liberals. He did not understand the Mexican 
people. 

6. Meanwhile, ihe time had come for the withdrawal of the French 
Iroops. The civil war in the United States had ceased, and the gov- 
ernment of this country demanded of France the fulfilment of her 
agreement and the departure of her troops. The Mexican war had 
never been popular with the mass of the French people; the French 
Chambers had voted, it is true, the necessary appropriation, in 1863, 
but only after a violent debate, in which Mr. Berryer, the great leader 
of the opposition, proclaimed "that if the French arms helped to 
place Maximilian on the throne, the honor of France would be 
pledged to maintain him there at all cost and all risk." Napoleon 
leit that he would not be supported, and he withdrew the French 
troops. Maximilian was left alone, with a divided people, to con- 
tinue the struggle against the liberals, now strengthened by the moral 
support of the United States. He refused to renounce the crown 
which had been voluntarily given to him, and placed himself at the 
head of his army. The struggle continued, with alternate success 
and defeat, until one of the imperial generals, a Mexican named 
Lopez, whom Maximilian had honored with his entire confidence and 
loaded with favors, vilely betrayed his master. This modern Iscariot 
sold lor gold the stronghold that made the principal security of the 
imperial army, and Maximilian compelled to surrender, was taken 
prisoner at Queretaro. He was tried, together with three of his gene- 
rals, and to the horror of the civilized world, and, against the rules of 
warfare as well as of humanity, was sentenced to be shot, and was 
executed. 

7. Mexico is once more a republic. The reign of anarchy has 
already recommenced, and before these lines appear in print, some 
successful partizan may have replaced Juarez in the Presidential 
chair. Unless, indeed, the last prayer of the generous Maximilian 
was heard, when he said that "he hoped his blood might regenerate 
Mexico and secure her future happiness." 

5. What were the prospects of the new empire? Say what good Maximilian 
did, and what fault "tie committed? — (J. What caused the withdrawal of the 
French troops? What did Maximilian do, when the French withdrew? By 
whom was he betrayed? What was his late' — 7. What is the present condition 
ot Mexico? What was Maximilian's last prayer? 



REVOLUTIONS AND WARS IN EUROPE. 

a. d. 1848-1867. 

SECTION I. 

France. — Insurrection in Paris; Republic proclaimed; Louis 
Napoleon; the Empire established; Crimean war. 

1. For some time previously to the year 1848, various incidents 
occurred to give indications of the aporoaching storm, which was to 
convulse the whole continent of Europe. The flame of revolution 
had already burst forth in Italy and Germany, and was not long in 
communicating its effects to the Parisian populace. In the early 
part of January, 1848, an open demonstration was made in favor of 
reform, and reform banquets were arranged to take place in various 
cities, especially in Paris. The government not only prohibited these 
reform festivals, but the king in a speech from the throne, censured in 
severe terms the whole movement as tending to excite blind and hos- 
tile passions. These measures only tended to exasperate the minds 
of the people. They paraded the streets in crowds, with the cry of 
reform, and "down with Guizot," the Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
One of these processions, on the night of the 23d of February, 1848, 
halted in front of the foreign office, and while in front of this building, 
a gun was discharged, and the military posted there thinking them- 
selves attacked, fired upon the crowd, and fifty-two persons fell, either 
killed or wounded. 

2. This was a signal for an open revolt. The news spread quickly 
through Paris; the alarm-bell was sounded, and in a few hours the 
whole city was in the wildest state of excitement. The people flew 
to arms, and were joined by the National Guard. The King, Louis 
Philippe, alarmed at this sudden change of affairs, and faring for his 
own safety, immediately abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count 
of Paris, and fled with his wife to England, where he was shortly 
afterwards joined by the other members of his family. 

3. Upon the flight of the King, the monarchy was abolished, and 
a republican form of government proclaimed. As soon as the news 
of the success of the insurrection reached England, Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte hastened to Paris, and addressed a few lines to Lamartine, 
then the head of the provisional government, announcing his arrival, 
and his willingness to place himself under the banner of the republic. 
To this letter the government replied by ordering him to quit Paris 
within twenty-four hours, and he again quietly withdrew to England. 
A few months afterwards, Louis Napoleon was elected to the Con- 
stituent Assembly from the department of Seine, by a large majority, 
and after some opposition, took his seat in that body. 

4. In the meantime an insurrection broke out in Paris against the 
new government. It was instigated by the Socialist leaders, who 

1. Previously to the year 1848, what occurred? Where had the flame hurst 
forth? To what did these measures tend? What took place on February 23d, 
1848? — 2. What followed? What became of the king? — 3. What followed the 
flight of the king? Who hastened to Paris? To this letter what answer was 
given? What happened a few months after this? — 4. In the meantime, what 
nappened in Paris'? 13y whom was it instigated ? 



EUROPE. 357 

wished to destroy every distinction of rank and fortune, and aimed at 
elevating themselves to power, and enriching themselves by plunder- 
ing their more wealthy neighbors. The streets were barricaded and 
the most formidable preparations were made to resist the government 
forces. Alarmed at the bold determination of the insurgents, the 
National Assembly invested General Cavaignac with dictatorial power, 
and intrusted to him the suppression of the revolt. After a sanguinary 
conflict, which lasted three days, the government triumphed; the 
barricades were carried, and the rebels dispersed. This, however, 
was not accomplished without a serious sacrifice of life and destruc- 
tion of property. Among the victims who fell on the occasion, none 
were more deeply lamented tlmn M. Affre, Archbishop of Paris. 
During the contest, this illustrious man approached the barricades, 
with a view of soothing the angry feelings of the combatants. His 
presence inspired respect, and both parties for a short time ceased 
from the conflict. While he was holding a conference with the 
insurgents, he received a mortal wound, and was borne in a dying 
state from the barricades. 

5. As soon as order was restored, an election for president took 
place. There were no less than six candidates, the most prominent 
of whom were Louis Napoleon, General Cavaignac, and L;imanine; 
the first named, however, was elected by a large majority over all his 
competitors. Napoleon entered on the duties of his office of president 
with energy, and soon succeeded in giving stability to the govern- 
ment. As his term of office drew towards a close, a formidable con- 
spiracy was entered into, chiefly by the members of the Assembly, 
having for its object the overthrow of the existing government, and 
the arrest and imprisonment of the president. Louis Napoleon, how- 
ever, being made aware of the movement, anticipated their designs 
by seizing on the government and dissolving the National Assembly. 
He then appealed to the people, who approved of his coup d'etat, and 
invested him with the supreme sovereignty, by a vote of nearly seven 
millions of a majority over all opposition. Notwithstanding Napo- 
leon Ill.'s assertion in 1852, "fr empire c' est la paix," France has 
sustained several wars since the establishment of the empire; but 
they have been of comparatively short duration, and have always 
been terminated with glory to the French arms. 

6. In 1853, the Czar Nicholas, thinking the moment opportune for 
eairying out his long-cherished scheme of aggrandizement at the 
expense of Turkey, declared war against that power and invaded the 
Danubian Provinces. The flimsy pretext for this aggressive measure 
was of protecting the Greek Christians persecuted by the Turks, 
although they enjoyed, in reality, more, religious liberty than did the 
Catholic Poles, in ihe Czar's own dominions. France and England 
formed an alliance with the Sultan, and declared war against Russia, 
in 1854. The allied powers soon drove the Russians from the Dan- 

Who was clothed with dictatorial power? How was the insurrection sup- 
pressed? Who were among the victims? — 5. Who were the candidates for the 
presidency, and who was elected? What conspiracy was entered into, and how 
did Napoleon act ? — 6. What did the Czar Nicholas, in 1853? What powers allied 
themselves against Russia? What did the allies ? 



358 EUROPE. 

ubian Provinces; but they aimed to greater results, and they resolved 
to strike a blow that would check forever Russia's ambitious 
schemes. 

7. With this view, the combined forces of England, France and 
Turkey, numbering 60,000 men, landed at Eupatoria on the 4th of 
September, 1854, and marched on the Russian stronghold, Sevasto- 
pol. On the 20th they encountered the enemy, and defeated him in 
the bloody battle of Alma. They then pushed vigorously their ope- 
rations against Sebastopol, upon which the attention of the civilized 
world was to be drawn for nearly a year, by the heroic daring of the 
besiegers and the stubborn defence of the besieged. The entrance of 
the harbor having been obstructed by the Russians by sinking several 
battle-ships and frigates, the allies resolved to take the place by land, 
and on the 17ih of October, they commenced the bombardment with 
200 pieces of heavy artillery. This siege may be called one continued 
batt'e, for, day and night the work of bloodshed and destruction was 
carried on with ever renewed vigor. Reinforcements were continu- 
ally arriving, and in January, 1855, the allied army was strengthened 
by a corps from Sardinia. The forts at the entrance of the harbor had 
been silenced or blown up by the French and English fleets ; ihe 
doomed city itself was a pile of ruins, when the general assault was 
given, September 8th, 1855. The French finally succeeded in carry- 
ing by storm the famous tower, MalakolT, and Sebastopol was now 
untenable. The Russian commander, Prince GortschakoiT, after a 
fruitless attempt to intrench himself in the city and protract the 
defence, sank his fleet, blew up the fortifications and evacuated the 
place. Sebastopol was taken. 

8. During the siege, the Czar Nicholas died, it is said of a broken 
heart at the failure of his plans. He was succeeded by his son, Alex- 
ander II., the present Czar, who, after the fall of Sebastopol, agreed 
upon an armistice. Peace was finally concluded, and by the treaty 
sinned at Paris in March, 1856, Russia renounced her protectorate 
over the Danubian Provinces; the navigation of the Danube was 
declared free, and the Black Sea neutral water, wherein no vessel of 
war can navigate. Turkey, on the other side, solemnly confirmed all 
the privileges heretolbre granted her Christian subjects. Russia's 
power, if not her desire to oppress Turkey, was effectually paralyzed. 

9. Such is the brief outline of the bloody conflict known as the 
" Crimean War," and during which the world saw the extraordinary 
spectacle of the banners of the Cross and the Crescent floating side 
by side, and the two old enemies, France and England, fighting in 
one common cause. Truly, the designs of an all-wise Providence 
are impenetrable. 

10. The year 1857 saw England and France again united in a war 
against the emperor of China, to obtain redress for insults proffered to 
their Hags, and to punish the Chinese for cruelties perpetrated upon 

7. Where did they land in September, 1854? What great battle was fought? 
What place did they besiege? — 8. Give an account of the siege of Sebastopol ? 
What became of the Czar Nicholas? Who succeeded him? When was peace 
concluded? What were the conditions of the treaty? — 9. What singular spec* 
sacie was presented by the Crimean war? — 10. What expedition did France and 
England undertake in 1S&>7? Why? 



Europe. 359 

*he ,v - missionaries. The allies took Canton, and advanced on Pekin 
so promptly that the Chinese emperor hastened to sign a treaty of 
peace; but, no sooner relieved from the presence of his enemies, lie 
broke his faith and persecuted the Christians anew. Another expe- 
dition was sent to China, and the victorious army of the allies entered 
Pekin in October, 18G0. A new treaty of peace was then signed, far 
more advamageous to the western powers than that of 1858 ; ihey 
Becured the right of having an ambassador at Pekin; the Christians 
were guaranteed the free exercise of their religion, eight Chinese ports 
were opened to European Commerce, and, finally, France and Eng- 
land received each a war indemnity of 00,000 francs. 

11. Another and similar expedition to Cochin-China was under- 
taken, in 1858, by France and Spain, the emperor of Annam having 
given them the same grounds of offence as that of China. The allies 
captured Tourane and Saigon, and suspended operations for a time, 
Spain having accepted a pecuniary compensation, and withdrawn 
from the conflict. But France resumed active hostilities in 1862, and 
compelled the emperor of Annam to recognize the rights of the Chris- 
tians, to pay her an indemnity and cede her three provinces, and to 
open three ports in Tonkin to commerce. 

12. Simultaneously with these minor expeditions, France became 
involved in another continental war. A quarrel had sprung up 
between her ally, Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, and the 
emperor of Austria. The latter having taken alarm at warlike pre- 
parations that were in progress in Sardinia, protested against them; 
and being unheeded, ordered his army in the Lombardo- Venetian 
provinces to cross the Tessino and invade the Sardinian territory. 
This act of hostility caused Napoleon to send immediately a French 
army into Italy. A short but bloody war ensued. On the 4th of 
June, 1859, the contending armies fought the celebrated battle of 
Magenta, which was gained by the French. On the 24th it was 
followed by the still bloodier battle of Solferino, which lasted sixteen 
h'-urs. Napoleon and Francis Joseph were in command of their 
respective armies, and their presence seemed to instill new fury m 
the combatants. Finally, the Austrians having suffered terrible looses', 
retreated across the Mincio, leaving the French in possession of the 
baltlelield. 

13. A truce followed. The two emperors had a personal interview 
at Villa-franca, and agreed upon the basis of a treaty of peace, which 
was finally concluded at Zurich. Sardinia obtained Lombardy, and 
France had for her share Savoy and the county of Nice. The active 
part taken by France in Mexican affairs (1863-1866) has already been 
described in a preceding chapter. This war was one of the grrvu st 
mistakes of Napoleon, for it has cost France much blood and treasure, 
and none of the objects for which it has been undertaken have beru 
realized. 

What caused a renewal of hostilities? IIo.v did the war end? — 11. Give an 
account of the expedition to Cochin-Chin*? — 12. In whet ather war did Hrauce 
become involved.' How did Austria, Act? What were the Uro principal Inutles 
fought? Witii wiiat result? — U. What followed'! Upou what conditions was 
peace made ? 



360 



EUROPE. 



SECTION II. 



The Revolt in Hungary; Insurrection in Vienna; War in the North 
of Italy ; Revolution in Rome; Flight of the Pope; the Roman 
Republic; the Pope Restored. 

1. The news of the Paris revolution, and the overthrow of Louis 
Philippe, was the signal for similar outhreaks in almost every capi 
tal in Europe. The smaller States of Germany, Baden, Wirtera- 
berg, and Saxony, were first convulsed, and many concessions 
and reforms wrung from the ruling authorities. Neither was the 
Austrian empire saved from the universal contagion. In March, 
1S48, a violent insurrection broke out in Vienna, and so great was 
its violence, that the emperor with his court retired to Innspruck 
leaving for a time his capital in the hands of the insurgents. But 
scarcely was this outbrake suppressed, when a new revolution broke 
out in Hungary. This new revolt was headed by the Magyars, the 
predominant race of the country, who aimed at rendering the nation 
independent of Austria, but the movement was opposed by the 
Croats, Slavonians, Servians, and other races of Hungary. The 
struggle was fierce and obstinate, and Austria finding herself un- 
able to suppress the Hungarian revolt, owing to the distracted 
state of the empire, applied for assistance to Russia, which was 
readily granted. In the meantime, the Diet of Debrerzin declared 
the independence of Hungary, and established a provisional gov- 
ernment under the direction of Kossuth. Tiie hostile armies now 
entered the country at several points, and the insurrection was 
brought to a speedy termination. Gdrgey, the Hungarian general, 
surrendered to the Russians at Vilagos, and Kossuth fled to Turkey, 
and subsequently visited the United Slates. 

2. The flame of insurrection also swept over Rome and the north 
of Italy. In Milan and Venice the Austrian garrisons were driven 
out, and the standard of independence raised throughout the whole 
of Lombardy. This success inspired Charles Albert, King of Sar- 
dinia, with the hope of making himself master of the Lombard- 
Venetian kinrJom, and he accordingly declared war against Aus- 
tria. In this he was joined by numerous Italian volunteers, and for 
a brief period success attended his arms. The scale, however, 
was soon changed. In the summer of 1848, the Austrian field 
marshal, Radetski, then in the eighty-sixth year of his age, sig 
nally defeated him at Custozza. The King of Sardinia fled during 
the night into his own dominions, and a truce was concluded with 
the victors. Urged on by the popular leaders, and burning with the 
desire to obliterate the dishonor of the late defeat, Charles Albert 
again resolved to try the fortune of arms. Accordingly in the fol- 
lowing spring, he again crossed the Austrian boundaries. He was 

1. What is eaid of the news of the Paris revolution? Tn March, what took place in 
Vienna? By whom whs the new revolt in Hungary headed? In the me mtime, what 
Jill the Diet of Debreczin do? What To I owed ?— 1. What took place in Milan and 
Venice? Who declared war against Austria? By whom was he defeated? Urged bj 
Jie popular leaders what did he again try ? 



EUROPE. 361 

met by Radetski at Vercelli, and signally defeated. He was ajrain 
routed on the following day at Novara, with the loss of upwards oi 
fifteen thousand men. This ended the war. Radetski returned in 
triumph to Milan after an absence of only eleven days. Charles 
Albert, after the second defeat, hastily abdicated in favor of his son, 
Victor Emanuel, fled into Switzerland, and thence into Spain, 
where he shortly afterwards died. 

3. In the meantime Rome was the scene of the most flagrant 
outrages and disorders. On the death of Gregory XVI, the choice 
of the conclave fell upon Cardinal Ferreti, who assumed the name 
of Pius IX. This illustrious Pontiff, from the very commencement of 
his reign, gave proofs of a liberal and enlightened policy, by grant- 
ing to the people every reform consistent with their happiness and 
the well being of the State. At first his generous acts were received 
with enthusiasm, and the name of Pius IX was every where hailed 
with applause. Rome, however, had been for some time previously 
the centre of a secret political organization, which had for its ulti- 
mate object the destruction both of the altar and the throne. The 
leaders of this body, at that time, were Mazzini, Storbini, and Gal- 
letti, men of talents and energy, but of the most abandoned princi- 
ples. They at first strongly "urged the Pontiff to join in the war 
against Austria, and on his refusal to comply with their request, 
they cunningly threw the blame on the Jesuits, and held them up to 
the people as the friends of Austria, and the enemies to Italian inde- 
pendence. The " blacks," as they were termed, were everywhere 
denounced, and so great was the popular feeling, thus unjustly 
excited against them, that the zealous followers of St. Ignatius could 
not with safety any longer appear in public, and were finally expelled 
from the Papal dominions. 

4. Encouraged by this success, they next directed their attacks 
against the Cardinals. It was the determination of the revolution- 
ary leaders from the beginning to destroy this order, and thereby 
remove from the Pope his most faithful counsellors. Under various 
preiences they assembled the people, and inflamed their minds against 
the Auslrians with whom they pretended the Cardinals had entered 
into a league for the purpose of delivering Rome into tneir hands 
and crushing forever the hopes of Italian independence. At the 
same time they professed the utmost loyalty to the Pope, but cun- 
ningly represented the Cardinals as restraining his Holiness in his 
measures of reform, and of preventing him joining in the war 
against Austria, as they had formerly done in regard to the Jesuits. 
From this time forward the cry of "'Death to the Cardinals " was 
heard in every part of Rome. 

5. With the view of conciliating the popular leaders, the Pope, 
in the fall of 1848, appointed as his prime minister, Count Rossi, a 
statesman of liberal views, a friend of nationality, but a man of 

Where was Charles Albert again defeated f What became of him ?-3. [lithe mean. 
time, what was the condition of Rome? Who succeeded OtC2<>ry X VI ? At iir,i how 
were his crenerous acts hailed ? Who were ihe leaders of the secret societies? At firs! 
what did they urae ? Against whom did they excite the indignation < t the poople '—4, 
Agaiust whom did they next direct their attacks :-5. Who was appoint! i prune ruuvuter i 

31 



362 



EUROPE. 



energy and determination. The Count entered on the duties of his 
office by the adoption of the most vigorous measures for the restora- 
tion of order, and for the suppression of the lawless proceedings 
which had for some time disgraced the city. Alarmed at his bold- 
ness, the conspirators resolved to remove him by assassination, which 
they did in the most brutal manner on the steps of the Senate 
chamber. Immediately after the death of the minister, and while 
the city was still in the utmost excitement on account of the horrid 
deed, the conspirators formed themselves into a Committee of Public 
Safety, assumed the command of the military forces, and the control 
of the entire municipal authorities. They then drew up a new 
ministry, composed of the most violent members of their own body, 
such as Mannani, Galletti, Sterbini, and others, and went in pro- 
cession to the (iuirinal, accompanied by an immense crowd of sol- 
diers of every grade, and followed by a curious and drunken mob. 
His Holiness requested time to consider their demands, but they 
insisted on his immediate assent. This being refused, they made a 
most furious assault on the palace, set fire to the gates and attempted 
to scale the walls. During the assault, Mons. Palma, Latin Secre- 
tary of the Pope, having exposed himself at one of the windows, 
was shot dead upon the spot. 

6. For several days his Holiness was kept a close prisoner in his 
own palace; at length, finding himself completely at the mercy of 
the conspirators, and learning that they were about to compel him 
to renounce all temporal power over the Roman States, and that his 
life was threatened if he refused, he determined if possible to escape 
from the city. Accordingly with the assistance of the Bavarian 
and French ambassadors, he effected his flight from Rome, on 21th 
of November, 18-J8, and proceeded to Gaeta, in the kingdom ol 
Naples, where he was cordially received by the king and the royaJ 
family. 

7. After the flight of his Holiness, the Papal government was 
abolished, and a republic proclaimed. In the meantime the Pope 
was not idle. In the early part of January following his arrival at 
Gaeta, he published a solemn protest against the proceedings of the 
conspirators in Rome, and appealed to the great Catholic powers of 
Europe, respectfully asking their armed interposition in his behalf. 
His request was immediately responded to by several of the powers 
to whom the appeal was made. Among these France took the lead. 
In the latter part of April, IS 19, a French army under the com- 
mand of General Oudinot, landed in the Papal states and marched 
directly for Rome. The first attack on the city was unsuccessful, 
and the French general was obliged to retire to Palo, a few miles 
from Rome, there to wait the arrival of reinforcements. About the 
middle of June the attack was renewed, and continued with but little 
intermission for nearly two weeks. The city was finally carried, 

What was his fate? Immediately after this, what was done? Who was killed during 
the assault?— 6. For several days, how was the Pope kept? By whose assistance did be 
escape, and where did he retire to? — 7. What was done after the flight of his Holiness ' 
>Vhat did he publish, &c? In April. 1U49, what did the French do ? What is said of the 
first attack ? What was the final result i 



EUROPE. 363 

and General Oudinol entered with liis forces on [he 2d of July. He im- 
mediately dispatched one of Wis officers lo Gaeta, lo inform the Sove- 
reign Pontiff' of the victory, and to place al his feet the keys of the city. 
< K . The Pope remained at Gaeta until the following April, when he 
letumed in triumph to his capital, and quietly resumed the exercise 
of his authority. The evils entailed on the country hy the late con 
viilsion were serious and manifold. Commerce had been interrupted, 
the mechanical branches ol industry paralyzed, debts created, and the 
community flooded by a worthless paper currency, which had been 
issued by the republic. To remedy these evils was the first care of 
Pius IX. on being restored to his capital, and to this he applied him- 
self with unremitting energy. By his prudent measures public con- 
fidence was soon restored, and life and energy infused into every 
department of the government. The loyal and good were more than 
ever endeared to the person of the Pontiff", while the hostility of his 
enemies was disarmed by his clemency and mildness. 

9. The magnanimity of the Holy Father did not, however, stay 
the revolutionary attempts of the Italian agitators. The war against 
Austria (1859) by exciting the public mind, gave birth to a political 
organization having in view the unity of Italy, and Victor Emmanuel, 
king of Sardinia, was proclaimed the king of the united kingdom. 
States ejected their rulers to enter this new combination, thereby not 
gaining their independence, but simply a change of masters. The 
Papal territory was sadly diminished by these unceremonious annexa- 
tions: Bologna and the Ilomagna were absorbed, and in I860, the 
duchies of Parma and Modena were united to the new kingdom. 

10. The Pope having appealed, in vain, to the Catholic sovereigns 
of Europe, resolved to make an effort lo resist these encroachments. 
He called upon the faithful to volunteer in defence of the Holy See, 
and entrusted the organization of his army lo the French general De 
Larnoriciere; an officer of the greatest merit, who had won imperish- 
able fame in the African war. Volunteers flocked from every part of 
Europe, and Larnoriciere was busily engaged in their organization 
and instruction, when, without any previous declaration of hostilities, 
the Sardinian general Cialdini, at the head of 60,000, invaded the 
Papal territory, and attacked the volunteers at Casltelfidardo. Lamo- 
riciere's talents as a general were unavailing to resist the attack. His 
raw recruits, poorly armed, and much inferior in number to the 
enemy, were cut down or taken prisoners, and the organization of 
the Pontifical Volunteers destroyed at one fell blow. The gallant 
general cut his way through the enemy, and threw himself into the 
city of Ancona. But this place, attacked and shelled by the Sardi- 
nian fleet, was soon after compelled to capitulate. The fall of Ancona 
involved the loss to the Pontifical States of the Marches and Umbria. 

11. Meanwhile, the revolution was still progressing all over Italy. 
Garibaldi was overrunning the Two Sicilies and taking Naples, whilst 
Cialdini besieged and took Gaeta. The youthful King of the Two 
S;cilies, Francis II, defended bravely his possessions; he could be 

8. When did the Pope return to his capital? What evils vrere entailer] on the 
community by the late convulsion?— 9. What happened in Italy in 1800? Was 
the Papal territory- diminished? How? — 10. What did the Pope? What g 
took command of his army? What happened at Castelfidardo7 Where did 

Ljunoriciere go? What was "the (ate of Ancona? — 11. What about the movement* 
of Garibaldi and Cialdini ? How did Francis II. behave ? 



364 EUROPE. 

seen, in the batteries of Gaeta, accompanied by his young and amia- 
ble queen, animating the gunners by his example; but he had to 
succumb, and sought refuge in Rome. 

12. The intervention of Napoleon, who sent troops to Rome, alone 
saved the eternal city from falling again into the hands of the revolu- 
tionists. Peace has been restored ; the seat of government of united 
Italy has been transferred to Florence, and the French troops have 
been recalled. But the Sovereign Pontiff is still threatened. The revo- 
lutionary party in Italy wants Rome, and the question of the temporal 
power of the Pope is freely discussed in the Italian parliament, whilst 
the demagogues avow openly their schemes for robbing the church of 
her last resources. They forget that Empires have fallen, Republics 
have passed like ephemereal meteors, and nations even have disap- 
peared from the face of the earth since Christ confided His church 
into the hands of Peter the fisherman. From all parts of the globe 
tributes of love are being sent to the Holy Father, and the banner of the 
cross may yet wave over an army strong enough to prevent the execu- 
tion of the work of iniquity contemplated by the Italian demagogues. 

VT.U IN SCHLESWia-HOLSTEIN — WAR IN GERMANY. A. D. 1863 — 1866. 

1. In 1863 a quarrel arose between Christian IX., king of Den- 
mark, and the Duke of Augustenburg, about the right of succession 
to the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, which both claimed. The 
German Diet supporting the Duke of Augustenburg's claim, sent 
troops to Holstein, whilst Prussia and Austria, ostensibly for the 
same object, occupied Schleswig, and taking the offensive, invaded 
Jutland. Denmark fighting alone against such odds was soon over- 
powered, and compelled to cede not only Schleswig and Holstein, 
but also the duchy of Lauenburg. 

2. Prussia had obtained Lauenburg for her share of the spoils, but 
far from being satisfied, she claimed the two other duchies. Austria 
refused to submit to such pretensions, and Prussia, withdrawing at 
once from the German Confederation, declared war against her former 
ally, whose territory she now invaded. She had secured by a secret 
treaty, the assistance of Italy, who rejoiced at an opportunity of 
driving the Austrians from Venetia. 

3. The Italian army of invasion was not fortunate. The archduke 
Albert gave battle to the Italians, near Custozza, on the 24th of June 
(1866,) and defeated them completely, compelling them to recross the 
Mincio. Their fleet fared still worse; on the 20th of July, the Italian 
admiral Persano, with 23 vessels, engaged the inferior fleet of admiral 
Tegetoff. Persano lost several vessels and was compelled to run into 
the port of Ancona, lor shelter. 

4. Meanwhile, the Prussians were operating with much better for- 
tune than their ally; in the month of June, they entered Hanover, 
Hesse-Cassel and Saxony; and soon occupied Frankfort and overran 
Darmstadt and Bavaria. The Austrian commander in chief was 
compelled to give battle to the formidable army, which, advancing in 
two columns through Saxony and Silesia made a junction at Gits- 

12. What saved Rome? What is the present condition of the Pope ? 

1. What was the cause of the war in Schleswig-Holstein ? What was the result? 
2. What were the pretensions of Prussia, and how did she act? — '■'>. What was 
the fortune of the Italian army of invasion? Of their fleet? — 4. What success 
attended the Prussians ? What great battle was fought ? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 365 

chin. The Austrians were inferior in number and demoralized by 
the non-arrival of 80,000 Bavarians upon which they had counted. 
The battle of Sadowa resulted in the total defeat and route of the Aus- 
trian army. The carnage was fearful, the greatest, perhaps, that has 
ever drenched in blood a battle field. The famous needle gun was used, 
for the first time, in this battle, by the Prussians. 

5. Austria was vanquished; to save the national honor and get rid of at 
least one of her adversaries, she ceded Venetia to France, with the secret 
understanding that this province should be turned over to Italy. The 
French emperor renewed his offers of mediation, and a treaty of peace was 
agreed upon, on the 2Gth July, which was subsequently ratified at Prague. 

0. Austria lost much more than she had contended for ; she confirmed 
the cession of Venetia, now a part of Italy ; renounced taking any part 
in the new Confederation which Prussia proposed to form North of the 
Meyne river: and she formally renounced all claims upon the duchies 
of Hoi stein and Schleswig. She had moreover to submit to the annex- 
ation of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfort to Prussia. 

7. Thus ended this iniquitous war, commenced ostensibly to protect 
the claims of a weaker third party. This successful and ambitious scheme 
for the aggrandizement of Prussia, was the work of the prime minister, 
count Bismark, a statesman of extraordinary power, who is the ruling 
spirit in European diplomacy. The once powerful empire of Austria 
has been humbled and weakened, but the other Powers watch jealously 
the ambition of Prussia, and peace is anything but certain in Europe. 

Spain. — During the last few years, Spain has made several efforts to 
regain the high position she once occupied among the other nations. 
Besides the expeditions against Cochin-China and Mexico, made jointly 
with France she has successfully terminated another against the emperor 
of .Morocco, and has been waging war against the Argentine Republic 
and Chili. But internal troubles are continually impeding her progress. 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

SECTION I. 

From ihe Birth of Christ to the Triumph of Christianity, ip the reign 
of Constantine, the first Christian Emperor , A. D. 312. 

1. In order to render this compendium more complete, it has been 
thought quite expedient to add a short history of the Christian Church, 
or of Christianity from its first promulgation to the present time. 
This interesting portion of history embraces a period of more than 
eighteen centuries, and may be divided into three separate portions. 

The first division extends from the birth of Christ to the triumph 
of Christianity, when it became the religion of the Roman Empire, 
under the reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 312. 

The second division extends from the reign of Constantine to the 
Pveformation, A. D. 1517; and the third, from the Reformation to the 
present time. 

2. At a time when the Roman Empire had reached the meri- 
dian of its greatness; when every nation accessible to its arms 

5. What happened after the battle of Sadowa? — 0. "What did Austria lose? 
7. What great statesman managed the affairs of Prussia ? What are liie pros- 
pect;; of peace in Europe ? What about Spain ? 

I. What period does this history embrace? Eow does the first div/Jou 
extend? The second? The third? 

31* 



366 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



had yielded submission to its power ; when rival monarchs and 
contending chieftains had ceased their strife, and the troubled 
elements of war, which had for ages convulsed the world, had 
sunk to repose under the mild reign of Augustus Caesar, Jesus 
Christ, the Prince of Peace, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea. 

At the time when this remarkable event took place, an expecta- 
tion universally prevailed, even among the pagan nations, that 
some extraordinary personage was about to appear in the world 
The Jews, in particular, were anxiously expecting the coming oi 
the Messiah, whose birth had been long foretold by the prophets; 
but they very erroneously imagined that he would appear as a 
temporal prince, clothed with worldly splendor and power; as a 
mighty conqueror, who would deliver their nation from the do* 
minion of the Romans. 

3. The Pharisees, who were the most powerful of the three 
sects* into which the Jews were at that time divided, presided in 
the schools, and were the chief doctors of the law. They received 
all the books of the Old Testament, to which they added their 
traditions or oral law, which was regarded of high authority 
They affected the appearance of great sanctity, but being desti- 
tute of the true spirit of religion, they are chargeable with the 
grossest hypocrisy ; they looked for a Messiah only as a great de- 
liverer, who should rescue Judea from the yoke of a foreign 
power, and subject the whole world to the Mosaic institutions. It 
is not surprising, then, that the manner of our Saviour's appear- 
ance on earth disappointed the expectation of the Jews. No 
royal palace designates the consecrated spot where the long- 
expected Messiah first appeared among the children of men; a 
lowly manger is the place of his nativity ; Joseph, his reputed 
father, is an humble carpenter, and Mary,Jiis virginal mother, 
though descended from the royal house of David, is undistin- 
guished among the daughters of Judea. 

4. The life of our divine Saviour was one of labor and suffer- 
ing ; his death was finally consummated upon an ignominious 
cross. He had chosen for his disciples men of the humblest 
walks of life. To twelve of these, styled Apostles, he gave a di- 
vine commission to propagate his heavenly doctrine, in these 
remarkable words : " To me all power is given in heaven and 
earth ; go ye, therefore, and teach all nations ; baptizing them in 
the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; 
teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded 

♦The other two sects were the Sadducees and Essences. The Sadducees were unbe- 
lievers in religion; they admitted the authority of the books of Moses, but denied the; 
inired character of the other parts of the Old Testament ; they rejected the doctrine 
of a future lifo, and the existence of angels and spirits. The Esse»ees were a class o: 
men who took no concern in the affairs of state, but professed to live in retirement 
and to attempt to purify the soul by abstinence, silence, and mortification. 

2. When and where was Jesus Christ born ? At that lime, what prevailed ? What 
were the Jews anxiously expecting? But what did they imagine ? — 3. What is said 
of the Pharisees? Whft did they affect 7 What is not surprising? What was the 

Slace of his nativity ? What was Joseph ? What was Mary ?— 4. What is said of our 
vine Saviour? What had he chosen? In what words did he commission thetv/elva 
Aposues* 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 367 

you ; and behold I am with you all days, even to the consumma- 
tion of the world."* 

5. Thus divinely commissioned, the apostles, on the day of 
Pentecost, being imbued with the gifts of the Holy Ghost, entei 
upon their mission, and in the streets of Jerusalem, promulgate 
Che law of Jesus Christ, and so astonishing were the fruits of their 
labors, that no less than three thousand persons were converted 
by the first sermon of St. Peter. This success did not fail to 
awaken in the breast of the Jewish rulers a spirit of jealousy ; 
they dreaded the total subversion of the Mosaic law, and left 
nothing undone to retard the labors of the apostles. A violent 
persecution followed, during which St. Stephen, one of the seven 
deacons, fell a sacrifice to their fury, and is honored as the first 
martyr of the Christian church. The most active of the perse- 
cutors of the Christians was a young man named Saul, who, not 
satisfied with the cruelties he had committed at Jerusalem, ob- 
tained permission of the high-priest to pursue them even to the 
adjacent towns. With this view, he set out to Damascus, but on 
his road he was suddenly struck blind, and cast upon the ground; 
at the same time he heard a voice, saying to him, " Saul, Saul! 
why dost thou persecute me ?" His attendants raised him up, and 
conducted him to the town; he was there baptized by a holy 
priest, named Ananias, and Saul, from being a violent persecutor 
of the Christian church, became one of its most illustrious apostles, 
and assumed the name of Paul. 

6. In the mean time, the twelve apostles having composed a 
symbol of their belief, commonly called the Apostles' Creed, and 
having appointed St. James, the son of Mpheus, as the first 
bishop of Jerusalem, set out to announce the truths of Christianity 
to the pagan world. They confirmed the doctrines they taught 
by the most astonishing miracles ; they healed the sick ; raised 
the dead to life ; and being endowed with the gift of tongues, 
they were enabled to speak the language of the different nations 
through which they travelled. The rapidity with which Chris- 
tianity was propagated, will appear extraordinary, when we reflect 
that its founder belonged to a nation undistinguished for power or 
importance; that he suffered a public and ignominious death; 
that his apostles, with few exceptions, were poor and illiterate, 
destitute of power or influence ; that the religion which they 
preached held out no promise of temporal goods, no worldly 
pleasures, honors or riches ; but on the contrary, often exposed its 
professors to scorn and reproach, persecution and temporal loss , 
finally, that it had to contend not only with the lon^ established 
superstition and popular dogmas of pagan worship, but also with 
the prejudices, passions, and vices of the world. 

* St. Matt. chap. 23. 



5. What did the Apostles do? How many were converted by the first sermcn of Si 
Peter? What followed ? Who fell a sacrifice to their fury ? Wh^ was the most ac- 
tive of the persecutors? On the road to Damascus, what happeneu to him ? By whom 
was he baptized ? What name did he assume? — 6. In the mean time, what did the 
twelve Apostles do? How did they confirm the doctrine they taught? What is said 
of the rapidity with which Christianity was propagated ? 



3C8 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

7. This rapid success, under these opposing circumstances, can 
be no other than the work of a divine hand. To the divine power 
of its founder alone, must we ascribe the wonderful triumph of 
the gospel. Allured by no earthly advantage, subdued by no 
other force than that of truth, the learned and the ignorant, the 
Jew and the Gentile, the Greek and the Barbarian, meekly bend 
their necks to the yoke of Christ, shake oil" their ancient preju- 
dices, and profess themselves the followers of a crucified God. 

8. In a ivw years, we find that the light of Christianity lias 
spread its cheering rays over the various provinces of the Roman 
Empire. St. Peter visited the towns of Samaria, Judca, and 
Syria, and first fixed his episcopal chair at Jlntioch. lie after- 
wards traversed the provinces of Asia Minor, and preached to 
the Jews in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia: he 
visited Rome about the year 44, to which city he removed his 
episcopal seat, wisely judging, that from the capital the light of 
Christianity would spread more rapidly through the empire. St. 
Paul, who had lately been introduced to the apostles, was conse- 
crated bishop, and sent to carry the glad tidings of Christianity 
to the Gentile nations. Passing through the provinces of Asia, 
Pamphylia, and Phrygia, he converted thousands to the Christian 
religion; from thence he visited Greece, a country which had 
oeen long renowned for science, for eloquence and for arts. Here 
the apostle resolved to introduce a more sublime and precious 
knowledge, the knowledge of the true God. His labors were 
crowned with success ; idolatry fell before the power of his hea- 
venly eloquence ; nourishing churches arose in the cities of Co 
nnth, Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens and Ephesus. From Greece 
lie directed his course to Rome, and carried the knowledge of 
Christ into the very apartments of Nero's palace. 

9. Notwithstanding the many shining virtues which adorned 
(lie lives of the first professors of Christianity, they were not, 
however, exempt from the frailties of men. A misguided zeal on 
the part of many of the Jewish converts at Antioch, led them to 
propose, as matter of obligation, that the Gentiles who became 
Christians, should submit to the law of circumcision, if they 
hoped tc attain salvation. The proposition gave rise \v warm dis- 
putes ; charity and religion were likely to suffer, when the affair 
was happily settled by a council held at Jerusalem. St. Paul and 
Uarnabas repaired to that city to be present on the occasion 
St. Peter opened the discussion, and after relating the wonders 
which God had wrought through his ministry among the Gentiles, 
concluded that no superfluous burden of the ancient law ought to 
be imposed upon them. St. James concluded the debate by ex- 
pressing his approbation of the decision given by St. Peter. 

10. In this, the first council of the Christian church, the apos- 
tles established a judicial form of proceeding, which the church, 

7. What is said of this rapid success? What is further observed in this paragraph"' 
—9. In a few years, what do we find? AVhat places did St. Peter visit ? When did he 
Visit Rome ? What is sa d of St. Paul ? What places did lie pass through ? Wh.vrs 
did he finally direct his course?— 9. What did a misguided zeal lead many of the Jew 
'bhconvevts to propose? Mow was the affair settled? Who opened the disc us8ioa. 
and who concluded the deoate?— 10. In this council, what was established? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 309 

m alter ages, followed, in deciding all questions that relate to 
faiih and discipline. A dispute, important in its consequences, 
had arisen among the faithful ; private authority, even that of *S'/. 
Paul, is unable to calm into silence the contending parties; re- 
course is had to the pastors of the church assembled in council ; 
the points in dispute are regularly discussed ; a decree is formed 
upon the subject; the faithful bow in acquiescence to the decision j 
the cause of disagreement is removed ; harmony and peace are 
again restored. 

11. After the death of Festus, the Roman governor, by whose 
authority the violence of the Jews had been restrained, the name 
of persecution was again renewed against the Christians in the 
Holy City. *S'/. James, the bishop of Jerusalem, surnamed the 
Just, on account of his exemplary piety and charity, fell a victim 
to their fury. Being summoned before the council of the Sanhe 
drim, he was ordered to declare his opinion concerning Jesus 
Christ; but in order that the declaration might be more public, 
they commanded the apostle to ascend the battlements of the 
temple, and from thence declare his sentiments to the surrounding 
multitude. No sooner had the venerable confessor appeared on 
the summit, and proclaimed the divinity of Jesus Christ, than he 
was precipitated from the battlement, and perished amidst a furious 
discharge of stones from the hands of the populace, while, in imi- 
tation of his divine Master, he prayed for his persecutors, and 
Desought God to forgive them, because they knew not what they 
did. 

12. Although the faithful had suffered in many places, both 
from the Jews and Gentiles, they had not, as yet, undergone any 
general persecution. The first of the Roman emperors who armed 
the sovereignty of the state against the professors of Christianity, 
was Nero, whose cruelty was only surpassed by his moral de- 
pravity. In his wild extravagance, he set fire to the city of Rome, 
that he might have the vain satisfaction of rebuilding it on a more 
magnificent plan. But finding that his excesses created against 
him the murmurs and disaffection of the people, he artfully' con- 
trived to throw the odium upon the Christians, whom he openly 
accused as the authors of the late conflagration, and published a 
decree, which made it a capital offense to profess the Christian 
religion. Revolting were the cruelties exercised against the un- 
offending professors of Christianity. Some were covered with 
the skins of wild beasts and devoured by dogs; others were 
braced in tunics steeped in pitch, and placed at certain distances, 
then set on fire to light the streets by night. Among t\\r many 
who suffered en this occasion, wore the two illustrious apostles 
St. Peter and St. Paul. They were confined for nine months ii\ 
a loathsome prison, at the foot of the capitol, before they were 
called to receive the crown of martyrdom. St. Peter was crucified 
with his head downwards, but St. Paul, being a Roman citizen, 
had the honor of dying by the sword. 

What is observed about it?— 11. After the death of Festus, what followed? Who 
fella victim to their fury? Relate the circumstaners of his death. — 12. Who first 
p.rmeJ the sovereign power against the Christians ? What did be do? On whom d< 
he throw the odium? What did he publish? How were some put to d.-ath? Wua* 
weio die most distinguished? 



370 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



13. The second persecution commenced during the reign ol 
the emperor Domitian, about the year 95, during which, it is com- 
puted that forty thousand Christians received the crown of mar- 
tyrdom. The most illustrious sufferer was St. John, the Evangelist. 
He resided chiefly at Ephesus, in Ionia; but on information being 
lodged against him, he was cited by the emperor to appear at 
Rome, and on account of his faith, he was condemned to be cast 
alive into a caldron of boiling oil. The sentence was carried 
into execution before the Latin Gate, but by the miraculous power 
of ftod, the holy martyr came forth from the caldron, not only 
unhurt, but more fresh and vigorous than before. The emperor 
having failed in his attempt to deprive him of life, banished him 
to the Isle of Patmos, where the saint was favored with those 
heavenly visions recorded in his book of Revelations. On the 
death of Domitian, in the year 96, St. John again returned to 
Ephesus. At this early period of Christianity, the church had the 
mortification to see many of her children fall from their first 
faith, and teach erroneous doctrines. Of these, the most con- 
spicuous w r ere Ebion and Nicholas of Antioch. Among other 
errors, they denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, and asserted the 
necessity of observing the ceremonies of the Mosaic law. To 
silence the heretical declaimers, St. John, at the request of the 
bishops of Asia, wrote his gospel, which he commences in a strain 
of sublime eloquence. 

14. The third persecution. After the death of Domitian, the 
peace of the church was restored, under the mild reign of Nerva ; 
but the reign of that prince was of short duration, and on the 
accession of Trajan to the imperial throne, the sanguinary edicts 
of Nero and Domitian were again renewed, and again the cities 
and provinces flowed with Christian blood. The younger Pliny, 
who was then governor of Bithynia, in a letter to the emperor, 
bears ample testimony to the exemplary lives of the Christians, 
and tells us, that so great was their number, that they filled the 
fields, the towns, and villages ; that on his arrival in the province, 
he could scarcely find a man of whom to purchase victims for the 
pagan altars. The most illustrious of those who suffered for the 
faith, on this occasion, were St. Clement, bishop of Rome; St. 
Ignatius, of Antioch, and St. Simeon, of Jerusalem. Simeon 
was nearly related to our divine Saviour, and had reached the 
one hundred and twentieth year of his age. 

15. The fourth persecution commenced about the year 168, 
under the reign of Marcus Aurelius, during which thousands 
sealed with their blood the doctrines of Christianity. Among the 
most illustrious of those who suffered was St. Polycarp, the 
venerable bishop of Smyrna. 

The fifth persecution commenced in the year 202. From the 

13. When did the second persecution commence ? Who was the most illustrious 
sufferer? Where did he reside, and to what was he condemned? How did he come 
forth from t'r.e caldron ? Where was he banished ? At this early period, what had the 
church? Of these, who were the most conspicuous? To silence them, what did St. 
Jonn do? — 14. When did the third persecution commence? What does the younger 
Puny say of the Christians? Who were the most illustrious of the suffereis? — 15. 
When was the fourth persecution commenced, and who suffered ? When did lUe fifth 
persecution commence ? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



371 



death of Aurelius, the Christians had enjoyed the free exercise of 
their religion, under various emperors, to the reign ot Seoents 
who was thought even favorable to Christianity, during the first 
seven years of his administration. At this period, seemingly with- 
out any provocation, he published against them a most sanguinary 
edict, forbidding them to hold their religious assemblies, and to 
profess the name of Christ. A dreadful persecution followed, 
particularly in Egypt, in Gaul, and Africa, where thousands 
sealed the profession of their faith by the effusion of their blood. 

10. The sixth persecution was ^ commenced under the reign of 
Maximin, who had reached the imperial throne by imbruing his 
hand in the blood of his predecessor. The emperor pointed not 
his shafts against the great body of the Christians, who had now 
become too numerous to be marked out for slaughter, but directed 
his malice against the pastors of the church. With the death of 
Maximin, the persecution ceased in 240, after it had lasted three 
years. The seventh persecution of the Christians was published 
on the accession of Decius to the throne. It was the mosc dread- 
ful hitherto experienced ; prisons, stripes, fire, wild beasts, 
melted wax, boiling pitch, racks, and iron hooks to tear the flesh 
from the bones, were employed to torment and to kill. The most 
distinguished of those who suffered during this persecution, were 
Fabianus, the bishop of Rome, Alexander, of Jerusalem, and 
Balytas, of Antioch. The eighth persecution was commenced 
under the emperor Valerian, who, in the beginning of his reign, 
had shown the greatest lenity towards the Chi istians. With a 
view of rendering the gods propitious to his anus, on the eve of 
an expedition against the Persians, he published a violent edict 
against the professors of the Christian name. Anions the first 
who suffered, were St. Stephen, bishop of Rome, and St. Sextus, 
his immediate successor, with the illustrious martyr, St. Law- 
rence, and also St. Cyprian, of Carthage. 

17. To gratify the senate and people of Rome, the emperoi 
Aurelian published a sanguinary edict against the Christians, 
about the year 274 ; but tho hand of an assassin put an end to his 
life, before he had the satisfaction of seeing it properly carried 
into effect ; yet in several places, many received the crown of 
martyrdom. 

The tenth and last persecution took place about the year 302 
The church, after enjoying a general tranquillity for thirty years, 
was again doomed to experience another sanguinary persecution, 
under Dioclesian, and his colleagues in the empire. ¥oi some 
time, Dioclesian rejected the measures on political motives, until 
he was at length overcome by the soothsayers, who declared that 
the empire could never flourish as long as the impious, meaning 
the Christians, were suffered to exist. The deluded emperor 

What edict was published?— 16. When was the sixth persecution commenced! 
Against whom did he direct his malice? When was the seven'.h persecution pub- 
lished? What were the modes of torture ? Who were the imst clhUinguisheu suf- 
ferers ? What did Valerian publish on the eve of his expedition mjtnasl Persia ? Who 
suffered on this occasion?— 17. To gratify the people of Romj. via: Id Aurelian do 
When did the tenth perseculion take r lace ? For some time what dul he reject ? At 
length, what did he publish ? 



372 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 



weakiy yielded to their persuasions, and published an edict for 
the total extirpation of the Christian religion. This violent decree 
well suited the sanguinary dispositions of his colleagues, Maxi- 
minus and Galenas, whose respective provinces were deluged 
in Christian blood. In Britain and Gaul, under the mild admin- 
istration of Constaniius, the horrors of the persecution were less 
severe; still the authority of Constantius was insufficient in some 
instances to restrain the more superstitious of the magistrates; 
hence, even in Britain, we find St. Alban, and also St. Angelus, 
bishop of London, dying for the faith ; and in Gaul, St. Quintin, 
and others, with the whole Theban legion, barbarously sacrificed 
to gratify an inferior officer of state. 

18. At this period, when the power of darkness seemed to 
threaten the total extirpation of the Christian name, we are called 
to look for the rise of that coming dawn which is to usher in a 
brighter and happier era; when the church is to triumph over the 
ruins of pagan superstition ; when the cross is to adorn the diadem 
of the Csesars. By a sudden revolution in the state, or rather by 
the providence of God, whose superintending power directs the; 
destinies of nations, Constantine, having triumphed over all his 
competitors, was placed in the undisputed possession of the impe- 
rial throne. The first care of this enlightened prince was to de- 
clare himself the protector of Christianity, and to publish an 
edict, by which all the penal restraints respecting religion were 
removed, and full liberty allowed to every one to profess and 
exercise that form of religious worship he should think proper to 
adopt. To break the force of prejudice, which time and custom 
had thrown around the religion of the empire, Constantine wisely 
judged that lenient measures were the most likely to eifect his 
object; and he concluded that to overthrow the system of error, 
nothing more was requisite than to grant protection to the true 
religion, and to let the wisdom of her doctrines, and the purity 
of her precepts, appear in open view. 

19. To remedy the evils occasioned by the edicts of his prede 
cessors, he recalled the exiles ; restored to the Christians theiir 
places of worship, and treated their ministers with the deepest 
respect. To the bishop of Rome, he granted the Lateran Palace, 
as the place of his future residence, and the adjoining palace 
was converted into a Christian temple, now called the church of 
St. John of Lateran. 

Thus was the church finally triumphant, after undergoing the 
ordeal of ten sanguinary persecutions. A change with respect to 
their religion, so sudden, and so unexpected, inspired the Chris- 
tians with the prospect of joy for the present, and the most flat- 
tering anticipations for the future. 

What is said of the persecution in Britain ?— 18. At this period, what are we called 
to look for ? What is said of Constantine? What was his»first care, and what did he 
publish ? To break the force of prejudice, what did he conclude ?— 19. To remedy the 
evils, &c, what did he do? Tc the bishop of Rome what d:d he grant? What is 
obseived of the Church ' 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 373 



SECTION II. 

htom the triumph of Christianity to the Reformation, from 
A. D. 312 to 1517. 

1. Under the protection of Constantine, Christianity widely 
extended and rapidly increased ; magnificent churches arose 
where pagan temples had stood for ages ; the storm of persecution 
had ceased; the bishops no longer lay under any restraint in the 
public exercise of their pastoral functions $ the people hastened 
to embrace a religion sanctioned by their sovereign. Such was 
the pleasing prospect of affairs when the church beheld her peace 
interrupted, and prosperity marred, not indeed by the hand of a 
pagan persecutor, but from the undutiful conduct of her own 
children. 

2. Arius, a turbulent priest of Alexandria, had aspired to the 
episcopal chair of that city, but being defeated in his pretensions, 
ne began to assail the doctrines of the church, and openly denied 
the divinity of Christ, and asserted that the Son of God was not 
equal to his Father in nature and substance. At this doctrine, the 
faithful were shocked and scandalized ; the pastors were alarmed ; 
and in order to check the progress of error, and to define the 
doctrine of the church on the point in question, the convocation 
of a general council was deemed expedient. Accordingly, during 
the month of June, in the year 325, the famous council of Nice 
was convened. It was composed of three hundred and eighteen 
bishops, besides a much greater number of inferior ecclesiastics. 
Osius, the venerable bishop of Cordova, in Spain, with two priests, 
presided in the name of St. Silvester, bishop of Rome, who was 
unable to attend in person. Constantine also, with many of his 
chief officers of state, was present on the occasion. After mature 
deliberation, the fathers, with exception of five bishops, unani- 
mously condemned the opinions of Arius as erroneous, and con- 
trary to what had been taught by the apostles and their imme- 
diate successors, and published the Nicene Creed, which should 
stand to all succeeding ages, as the test of orthodox belief in the 
divinity of Jesus Christ. The question of faith being thus finally 
decided, the council proceeded to enact certain canons, for the 
regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. The uniform celebration 
ofEaster-day was fixed, and directed to be universally kept in 
future, on the first Sunday after the first full moon that follows 
the vernal equinox. Before the council separated, a synodical 
epistle was drawn up, and directed to St. Silvester, who is styled 
in that document, the blessed pope of Rome, requesting that he 
would confirm its decrees. 

3. Arianism was checked' for the present, but not suppressed ; 
it continued to find many patrons and supporters among those 

1. What is said of Christianity under the protection of Constantine? What arose? 
What did the people do ? — -2. What is said of Arius ? What did he deny and assert? 
In order to check the progress of error, what was done? When and where did it 
/licet? Of what was it composed? Who presided ? How were tin; opinions of Ariua 
condemned ? What was fixed and directed ? Before the council separated; what was 
done 7 — 3. What is said of Arianism 9 

32 



"™ THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

whose rank and power gave it considerable influence. Constan- 
UuSy cue son and successor of Constantine, with several subse- 
quent emperors, favored the Arian heresy, and under their re- 
spective reigns, the orthodox portion of the church experienced 
a series of persecution little inferior in point of cruelty and vio- 
lence to those carried on when pagan sovereigns swayed the im- 
perial scepter. Under the reign of Tkeodosius the Great, peace 
was again restored to the church ; and in order to remedy the 
evils, and correct the general confusion of doctrine that pervaded 
the east, occasioned by the violence which prevailed for nearly 
forty years, a second general council was convened at Constan- 
tinople in the month of May, A. D. 381. 

4. This council consisted of about one hundred and fifty ortho 
dox bishops, besides thirty of the Macedonian party. The Ma- 
cedonians, who took their name from Macedonius, the leader of 
their sect, not only maintained the Arian heresy, but also denied the 
divine procession of the Holy Ghost. The fathers of the council 
condemned, in the most explicit terms, this new error, declaring 
the Holy Ghost to be " The Lord and Giver of life, who, with the 
Father and Son, is equally adored and glorified." Among the 
persons most distinguished for their learning and sanctity, wo 
find the names of St, Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria ; St. Basil, 
the Great, bishop of Cassarea ; St. Gregory Nazianzen, no less 
distinguished for his eloquence than for the holiness of his life ; 
St. Gregory, bishop of Nyssa,and St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem. 
To these may be added the names of St. Ambrose, bishop of 
Milan ; St. Jerome, the learned Secretary of St. Damasus, 
bishop of Rome, and finally the illustrious St. Chrysostom, whe 
died in the early part of the succeeding century. 

5. As the Arian heresy gradually declined, the schism of Dona- 
tus began to rise on its ruins. The first appearance of this schism 
is dated from about the middle of the fourth century. Donatus, a 
turbulent prelate, with several other bishops, contested the validity 
of the election and consecration of Cccilian, bishop of Carthage, 
and even went so far as to pass sentence of deposition against 
him, and to elect Majorian in his place. In defiance of all 
authority, they supported this violent measure, and on the death 
of Majorian, they_ elected one Donatus, from whom the party 
properly derives its name. To schism, they added heresy; as 
serting that God, the Son, was less than the father, and greatei 
than the Holy Ghost; that the church had failed, and that with 
them alone existed true virtue. Towards the close of the fourth, 
and the beginning of the fifth century, they had greatly mul- 
tiplied ; and with their numbers, their violence also increased; 
they denounced open hostilities against the orthodox clergy, 
drove them by force from their churches, profaned the sacred 

Of Constantius ? Under Theodosius the Great, what took place? When was th<5 
second council convened? — 4. Of what did this council consist? What did the Ma- 
cedonians maintain and deny ? What did the fathers of this council declare ? AVho 
Who are among the persons most distinguished for their learning, &c? — 5. As tho 
Arinn heresy declined, \v T hat schism arose ? What is said of Donatus ? To schism 
what did they add and assert ? What did they denounce ? After the great conference 
et Cartilage, what do wo find ? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 375 

vessels, and overturned the altars. After the great conference 
held at Carthage during the year 411, at. which *S'/. Austin, the 
learned bishop of Hippo, in the most satisfactory manner, refuted 
the arguments of the Donaiists, we find that the heresy rapidly 
declined; but before it had entirely disappeared, the Pelagian 
heresy grew into being. 

G. Pelagius, the progenitor of this new sect, by birth a Britain, 
was a monk of Bangor, in Wales, from which place he went to 
Rome during the fourth century. He denied the existence of 
original sin in the soul of man, and rejected the necessity ol 
divine grace for the merit of good works, contending that Adam, 
by sinning, only affected himself, and that his descendants are 
now born in that state in which they would have been had lie 
never sinned. These errors were repeatedly condemned by 
several local councils held about this period, and refuted by the 
unanswerable arguments of the great St. Austin. 

7. About the year 428, the Nestorian heresy was first broached 
at Constantinople. Nestorius, from whom the heresy takes its 
name, was at that time bishop of that city. In opposition to 
the Catholic doctrine, he taught that there were two distinct 
persons in Jesus Christ, namely, that of God and man, joined to- 
gether by a moral union in such a manner that the Godhead dwelt 
in the humanity merely as a temple. Hence he denied the Incar- 
nation, or that God was made man, and asserted that the Blessed 
Virgin Mary ought not to be styled the Mother of God, but the 
mother of the man Christ, whose humanity was only tne temple 
of the divinity. This strange doctrine, delivered foi the first 
time from the pulpit of the great church of St. Sophia, so shocked 
the audience, that they closed their ears and rushed from the holy 
place. These errors of Nestorius were condemned by the third 
general council held at Ephesus, A. D. 431. 

8. About twenty years after this event, the fourth general 
council was held at Chalcedon for the purpose of condemning the 
errors of Eutychus, who admitted but one nature in Jesus Christ, 
and maintained that his human nature was totally absorbed by 
the divine, and became one with it; so that in his opinion Christ 
had no real body, and consequently, as divine nature is incapable 
of suffering, he had neither died nor suffered really, but in appear- 
ance only. The heresy, however, continued to increase, causing 
violence and confusion, particularly in the east, until after the 
fifth general council, held at Constantinople during the year 553, 
when it gradually declined. 

9. But the church was not. destined to enjoy a long continuance 
of repose; one heresy was no sooner checked and proscribed, 
than a new one started up in its place. Error had often found 
protection in the imperial palace, but in the present instance we 

6. What is said of Pelagius? What did lie deny, reject, &c. ? By whom were these 
errors condemned and refuted ? — 7. About the year 428, what took place ? What was 
Nestorius? What did he teach ? Hence, what did he deny and assert ? Where was 
.his strange doctrine first delivered, and what followed? — 8. When and why was the 
fourth general council held ? What did Eutychus adm.t and mainuur. ? When and 
wheicwas the fifth general council held?— 9. In the present instan:;, what do we 
find ? 



376 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



find the emperor himself becoming the founder of a new sect 
called the Iconoclasts, or Image-breakers. Leo, garnamed the 
/saurian, having ascended the throne of Constantinople, con- 
ceived a great aversion to the images of Christ and the saints, 
which were used in the churches, and ordered their removal 
under the severest penalties. In carrying this extraordinary 
edict into effect, much violence and bloodshed was occasioned $ 
and the disturbance continued to rage until the convocation of the 
seventh general council held at Nice towards the close of the 
year 787. This council was attended by about three hundred 
bishops, the representatives of the church from all parts of the 
Christian world, and after due deliberation they unanimously 
declared that the pictures and images of Jesus Christ and his 
saints are useful in the churches and other places ; that they recall 
forcibly to the minds of those who behold them the scenes they 
represent; that they may be venerated and honored, not indeed 
with that supreme honor which belongs to God alone, but with a 
relative and inferior honor, such as every Christian entertains for 
the Bible in which the divine law is written. 

10. In the year 886, Photius, through the influence of imperial 
authority, was placed in the patriarchal chair of Constantinople, 
to the forcible exclusion of St. Ignatius, its lawful incumbent. 
Proceeding from one extravagance to another, Photius at length 
calling together a synod of twenty-one bishops, pronounced sen- 
tence of deposuion and excommunication against Nicholas, the 
Roman pontiff. Upon the accession of Leo, surnamed the Wise, 
Photius was compelled to relinquish his usurped dignity and to 
retire to a monastery in Armenia, where he died in the year 893. 
The foundation of the Greek Schism was thus commenced, and 
finally completed by Michael Cerularius, in 1053. On the death 
of Alexis, Michael, from th-e humble condition of a monk, was to 
succeed him in the patriarchal chair. Shortly after his elevation, 
he began by his acts and writings to display his inveterate preju- 
dice against the discipline and doctrine of the Latin church. 

11. St. Leo, the Roman pontiff, seeing that every thing seemed 
to threaten an open rupture, did all in his power to prevent it. 
He sent the celebrated Cardinal Number to Constantinople for 
the purpose of effecting an adjustment of the difficulties, but 
without success. Michael now threw off all restraint, assumed 
the title of universal patriarch, and published an act of excommu- 
nication against the bishop of Rome and the whole Latin church; 
and proceeding from schism to heresy, he denied the procession 
of the Holy Ghost from God the Son, as well as from the Father. 
The maintenance of this article with the rejection of the papal 
jurisdiction, besides some variation in points of discipline, form 
he only difference at present between the Greek and Latin 

churches. 

What is said of Leo? When was the seventh general council held? By whom 
was it attended? What did they unanmiously declare?— 10. In SG6, wha> took piace* 
What did he at length pronounce? On the accession of Leo, what is saif p'' Phouus T 
By whom, and when was the Greek schism completed ?— 11. What did Siv V-« do* 
What did Michael assume, publish, and deny? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 377 

12. "While these things were transacting in ihe East, new 
errors were broached in the West. Beregarius, archdeacon of 
Angers, and a native of Toys, in France, began to dogmatize 
against second marriages, also against the necessity of infant bap- 
tism, and lastly, against the real presence of Christ's body in the 
Holy Eucharist. Several local councils were held for the purpose 
of ascertaining the opinion of the church on these different points 
of doctrine. Beregarius being cited to appear before them, re- 
nounced his positions, but afterwards propagated them in the new. 
in the year 1079, during the pontificate of St. Gregory VII., a 
great council was held at Rome, at which one hundred and fifty 
bishops assisted. Before the assembled prelates Beregarius again 
solemnly recanted his opinions, confessed that he had been de- 
ceived, and threw his writings into the fire. It is generally be- 
lieved that after this he remained in the communion of the Catholic 
church until his death, which took place during the year 1088. 

13. From an early period, it had been customary for emperors 
or kings to present the ring and crosier to all the bishops elected 
within their respective dominions. Against this custom, called 
Investiture, the sovereign pontiffs had long declaimed, as it was 
often productive of evil consequences, subjecting the church to 
the necessity of waiting on the capricious will of the sovereign to 
fill the vacant bishoprics. During the pontificate of Gregory VII 
the privilege was warmly contested against Henry IV., emperor 
of Germany, and continued to be a subject of dispute until the 
affair was finally settled at the council of Lateran, held in the 
year 1123, when his successor, Henry V., renounced his preten- 
sions to the right of Investiture. 

14. Shortly after this period, the peace of the church was again 
interrupted by the pretension of two claimants of the papal chair. 
On the death of Honorius II., Innocent II. was chosen to succeed 
him by a majority of the cardinals, not, however, without strong 
opposition on the part of Cardinal Peter, who had long aspired to 
the pontifical dignity. He had the .address to procure his elec- 
tion in opposition to the lawful pontiff, whom he expelled from 
Rome, and kept possession of his usurpation until his death, in 
the year 1138. The most striking circumstances that distinguish 
the close of this and the greater part of the following century, 
were the Crusades, or sacred wars, undertaken for the recovery 
of the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels ; of these we 
have spoken under their proper head. 

15. During the pontificate of Gregory IX., a treaty of union 
was commenced between the Greek and Latin churches ; and 
although it did not receive the entire approbation of the Greek 
nation, still it seemed to promise a happy issue. The project was 
eagerly pursued by the succeeding pope, and finally accomplished 

12. What is said of Beregarius ? In 1079, what took p!aee ? "What did Beregarius 
solemnly do? What, is generally believed ?— 13. From an early perod, what had 
been the custom ? Why did the sovereign pontiff declaim against it? When was tne 
affair finally settled ?— 14. By what was the peace of the church interrupted ? On the 
death of Honorius, what took place ? What striking circumstance is mentioned T — 
15. What was done during the pontificate of Gregory IX. ? When was it finally 
f lisiied? A _. 

32* 



378 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



m the time of GregorjrX., at the great counr.il held at Lyons, in 
France, A. D. 1274. The union, however, was of short duration. 
On the death of Michael, the Greek emperor, his son Jlndronicus, 
who had ever been averse to the union, openly disavowed the 
measure, and in a short time frustrated all that had been accom- 
plished at the council of Lyons. The bishops, who signed and 
refused to retract the union, were deposed, ana the Greek church 
i second time plunged into heresy and schism. 

16. On the death of Gregory XL, Urban IV. was chosen to 
succeed him in the pontifical throne. At this time the abuses 
committed by the agents and officers of the court of Rome had 
oecome a subject of loud complaint. A laudable zeal in effecting 
a reform carried this pontiff to a degree of severity which was 
deemed imprudent. In his exhortations and reprimands, he 
spared not even the cardinals themselves. They felt the justness 
of his censures, but rather than reform the causes of complaint, 
they chose to involve all Christendom in confusion. Retiring 
from Rome to the number of fifteen, they proceeded to Foadi, 
where, declaring the Roman see vacant, they chose for pope, 
Robert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement, and fixed his 
residence at Avignon, A. D. 1379. Urban, however, steadily 
maintained his authority until his death in 1389. Five years 
afterwards, Clement, his rival, was called from the busy scenes 
of life to the silence of the tomb. 

17. About the year 1385, John Wickliffe, styled the Reformer, 
appeared in England during the latter part of the reign of Edward 
III. Wickliffe had received a liberal education in the university, 
where he subsequently gave lessons of divinity with much ap- 
plause. The doctrines advanced by him were chiefly the follow- 
ing: He maintained that a bishop or priest in. the state of mortal 
sin, could not ordain, consecrate, or baptise ; that the substance 
of the bread and wine remain in the sacrament after consecration, 
and that Christ was not really present therein ; that the pope, if 
he be a wicked man has no authority over the faithful ; that the 
clergy ought to have no temporal possessions, and that auricular 
confession was superfluous and unnecessary. Wickliffe gained 
many adherents of whom the Duke of Lancaster, the king's un- 
cle, was the most distinguished, under whose patronage he con- 
tinued to disseminate his principles until hi3 death. His follow- 
ers are generally known by the name of Lollards. 

IB. The convocation of the general council of Constance had 
two important objects in view, namely, the extinction of schism, 
and the investigation of the doctrines advanced by Wickliffe, 
which were still advocated by his disciples. It was proposed for 
the sake of peace, that the three competitors would resign their 
pretensions to the pontifical throne. To this measure Gregory 
readily assented ; John, who was regarded as the lawful pope, 

On the death of Michael, what was done by his son? — 16. Who succeeded Gregory 
XI.? To what did his zeal carry him ? Retiring from Rome, what did the cmdinais? 
What is said of Urban ?— 17. In 1385, what took place ? What is said of Wieklitlc? 
What did he maintain? By what name were his followers known?— 13 Why was 
the council of Constance called? What was proposed? What is said of Gregory and 
John* 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 379 

showing an unwillingness to resign his claim, was deposed by the 
council, but he afterwards freely signed the act of his deposition. 
Benedict, the third competitor, obstinately refused to come into 
any measures with the members of the council, who, regarding 
the Holy See as vacant, proceeded to make arrangements for the 
election of a new pontiff'. The choice fell upon cardinal Otho 
Colonna, who took the name of Martin V. His election gave 
universal satisfaction, and happily ended the schism which had 
go long 1 distracted the church, A. D. 1417. 

19. The writings of Wicklift'e, which by this time had passed 
into Germany, fell into the hands of John Huss, rector of the 
university of Prague. Pleased with the principles they incul- 
cated, he adopted them, and preached them from the pulpit. His 
eloquence and the persuasive manner in which he addressed his 
audience, gained him many adherents, among whom a professor 
of divinity, known by the name of Jerome of Prague, was the 
most distinguished. Huss being cited to appear before the coun- 
cil to give an account of his doctrines, readily consented, and 
having obtained a passport for the security of his person from the 
emperor, he set out to Constance. Having arrived there, he 
began to disseminate his principles among the people, for which 
he was placed under arrest and sent to the Dominican Convent, 
until the council could take cognizance of his case. When called 
before the prelates, he was convicted of holding doctrines con- 
trary to the church, and refusing to retract, he was degraded 
from the order of the priesthood, and delivered over to the civil 
power. The punishment which the Germanic law at that time 
inflicted on those convicted of obstinate errors against faith was 
burning alive; to this cruel ordeal Huss was sentenced by the 
magistrates of Constance, and suffered on the 16th of July, in 
1415. About a year after this event, Jerome of Prague was con- 
demned for obstinately maintaining the doctrines of Huss, and 
was executed in a similar manner. 

20. In 1439, the last re-union of the Greek with the Latin 
church took place, at the council held at Florence. After the 
great point in dispute, namely, the procession of the Holy Ghost, 
had been regularly discussed, the Greeks frankly acknowledged 
that the Latins had proved their point. A decree was accordingly 
made out, which once more united the churches of Rome and 
Constantinople in one fold and under one pastor, and was first 
signed by the pope and Latin fathers, then by the Greek emperor 
and all his bishops, except Mark, the metropolitan of Ep he sits. 

This memorable event, which had been so well conducted, 
afforded every well grounded hope that the orthodox faith would 
once more diffuse its rays over the provinces of the East. But 
from the unsteady character of the Greeks, little could be expect- 
ed; the union, after enjoying a precarious existence for a few 

Of Benedict? Who was elected by the council?— 19. What is said of th^ -/vrmnaft 
of Wickliffe? Being- cited before thecouncil, what did he do? Why was he sent tc 
»he Dominican Convent? Of what was he convicted? AVhut punishment was in- 
flicted by the Germanic law? When did Huss sutler ? Who else was condemned ?— 
20. In 1430, what took place ? What decree was made out, and bv Wi.om was u signed i 
Wha- did this event afford? In 1452, what took place; 



380 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



years, **as severed for ever. In 1452 a genera, revolt took place, 
and threw every thing into confusion; the monks, the clergy, a 
part of the laity and the senate, rose tumultuously at once, pro- 
claimed the union at an end, and from that moment removed all 
communion with the Latin church. 



SECTION III. 

The Reformation, Ji. I). 1517. 

1. Amidst the various circumstances which continued to awaker 
the jealousies and direct the interests of the rival monarchs ot 
Europe, the bishop of Rome was often compelled to act in the 
two-fold capacity, as a temporal prince and as the spiritual head 
of the Christian world. Unhappily the obligations annexed to his 
character, as head of the church, obligations which had no other 
object than the interest of religion and the general peace of all 
Christendom, were sometimes, by a dereliction of duty incident 
to human nature, made subservient to selfish or political ends. 
The sovereign pontiffs, moreover, enjoyed extensive privileges, 
which excited the murmurs of many of the clergy, and contributed 
materially to weaken the papal jurisdiction, particularly in the 
West, where it had numerous and formidable adversaries. 

2. In this state of things, Leo X. was called to fill the pontifical 
chair. Julius, his predecessor, had formed the design of erecting 
a church in Rome in honor of Sf. Peter, which in extent and 
magnificence would be worthy of the capital of the Christian 
world. This noble design suited the lofty genius of Leo. But 
finding the sum in the treasury insufficient for the completion of 
the work, he resolved to appeal to the generosity of the faithful 
at large; and in order to encourage their gratuitous offerings, he 
published a grant of indulgences to all those who should contribute 
towards the expense of the edifice, solely designed for the honor 
of God. 

An indulgence accordingly, as I find it defined in several stan- 
dard Catholic works,* " is a relaxation of the temporal punish- 
ment which still remains due to sin, after its guilt has been re- 
mitted by the sacrament of penance." 

3. In the publication of these indulgences and in the collection 
of the contributions of the faithful, many abuses are alleged to 
have been committed by those appointed for that purpose. On 
similar occasions, when a crusade or the like was to be put in 
motion, the Augustm friars were usually appointed to announce 
it from the pulpit; at this time, however, they had the mortilica- 

* Poor Man's Catechism. Catholic Christian Instructor. 



1. How was too bishop of Rome often compelled to act? What did they enjoy? 
2- Who was called to fill the pontifical chair? What design had his prcdeeessoi 
Jormcd? What did Leo resolve and publish? What is an" indulgence?- 3. In tnt 
publication ol" these indulgences, what are allcdged? On similar occasions who were 
appointed ? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 381 

tion to see the Dominicans preferred before them. This circum- 
stance tended materially to pique the Augustinians, and led them 
to reprobate, in the most pointed manner, the misconduct of the 
members of a rival order. The most conspicuous of those who 
publicly denounced the abuses committed by the Dominicans, 
was Martin Luther, doctor and professor in the University of 
Wittemberg. In the warmth of his invectives, Luther passed 
from the abuses, to contest the efficacy of the indulgences them- 
selves. The University over which he presided, and the electoi 
of Saxony espoused his interest. The dispute was maintained 
for some "time with much earnestness between the papal commis- 
sioners and the divines of Frankfort. 

4. In the mean time, his doctrine, which now began to excite 
universal attention, was announced to his holiness at Rome. Leo, 
in 1520, published a bull in which he proscribed the opinions of 
Luther, and called on him to retract his errors and to burn his 
writings, and placed him under the censure of excommun. cation 
unless he should comply within a given time. Luther at first 
determined to appeal from the pope to a general council, but 
being protected by the elector of Saxony, he resolved to pursue 
a more decided course. Finding himself excommunicated and 
his opinions condemned, he no longer observed any restraint, but 
publicly burnt the papal bull in the preserve of a vast assemblage 
of the people in the city of Wittemberg, and from that moment 
renounced the authority of the pontiff. 

5. This circumstance tended materially to advance his cause. 
The people on a sudden lost that reverential awe which had for- 
merly impressed them for every thing proceeding from the Roman 
pontiff, and also the confidence which they had always reposed 
in the efficacy of indulgences. Luther, perceiving that his doc 
trines had caused considerable ferment in the empire, thought 
prudent to withdraw for some time from public view. He retired 
to a castle belonging to his protector, the Duke of Saxony. In 
this retreat he digested his system of reform. Having already 
renounced the papal supremacy, he next rejected transubstantia- 
tion, the sacrifice of the mass, purgatory, and the utility of pray- 
ers for the dead; also the invocation and intercession of the 
saints, and finally, monastic vows, celibacy of the clergy, and the. 
merit of good works. 

0. At the solicitation of the pope and the princes of Germany, 
Charles V., who had lately succeeded to the imperial throne, 
assembled a diet at Worms in 1521, for the purpose of taking 
some measures relative to the new doctrines. Luther, without 
being the least intimidated by the late censures fulminated against 
him, appeared before the assembly, boldly defended all that he 
had done or written, and in conclusion declared that his con- 
science would not permit him to make the least retraction what 

Who was the most conspicuous, &c? In the -warmth of his invectives, what Jid 
Luther do 7 — 4. In the mean time, what took place- In 1520. what did Leo publish 1 
What did Luther at first determine? What did he publicly do? — 5. What is said of 
the people? Where did Luther retirt ? What did he reject?— 6. In 152', what was 
done? What is said of Luther before his assembly? 



382 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



ever. An imperial edict was passed, which ordered his writings 
to be burnt, and himself to be placed under arrest. Under these 
circumstances Luther thought it proper again to withdraw, but 
the sudden departure of the emperor to Spain rendered the edict 
ineffectual . 

7. Lutheranism, or the Reformation, as it was now called, 
spread rapidly through the different states of Germany. Fron. 
Upper Saxony it extended over the northern districts, the princi- 
palities of Brunswick and Mecklenberg ; it passed into the Pala- 
tinate, Lunenburg, Magdeburg, and raost ot the towns along the 
coast of the Baltic, as far as Prussia. In 1530, the Lutheran di- 
rectors published their confession of faith, in twenty-one articles, 
which are called the Confession of Augsburg. The following 
year is distinguished for the famous league ot Smalkald, when 
the confederate princes of the confession solemnly bound them- 
selves to support each other in their protest against all compulsory 
measures that the emperor might adopt against them. From this 
protest made at Smalkald, those professing the reformed religion 
nave acquired the appellation of Protestants. 

8. At the diet of Augsburg, the princes who had signed the 
confession, pledged themselves to abide the decision of a general 
council to be convened by the pope. Accordingly, in 1542, 
Paul III. convoked a general council to meet at Trent, for the 
purpose of terminating the religious contests which had so long 
disturbed the tranquillity of the empire and that of Europe. This 
celebrated synod was not concluded before the year 1563, at 
which time the Protestants thought proper not to be ruled by its 
decrees. In the mean time, a treaty of peace was concluded at 
Passau, between Charles V. and the princes of Germany, which 
secured to the Protestants religious toleration and full liberty of 
conscience. 

9. Among those who bore a prominent part with Luther, in the 
early part of the Reformation, are the names of Calvin, Zirin- 
glius, Melancthon, Carolostadius, and Beza. \_See Biography.] 
The Reformation soon extended into Sweden and Denmark, and 
was firmly established in the city of Geneva, and the Swiss can- 
tons, by Calvin. It was about this time that Henry VIII., of 
England, applied for a divorce from Catharine of Arragon; but 
being disappointed in his application, he renounced the authority 
of the pope, and assumed the title of the supreme head of the 
English church. Under his successor, Edward VI., through the 
instrumentality of Cranmer, the reformed doctrines were effect- 
ually established in that kingdom. Scotland soon became the 
theatre of reform, through the preaching of Knox, who had im- 
bibed the principles of Calvin during his residence at Geneva. 

10. While thousands were deserting the ancient faith, the 
church of Rome beheld with pleasure the formation of a religious 

What was passed ? — 7. How had the Reformation spread ? In 15H0, what was pub- 
lished ? For what is the following year distinguished ? How was the appellation ol 
Protestant acquired ? — 8. At the diet of Augsburg, what did the princes pledge them- 
selves ? When was the council of Trent convoked and concluded? In the mean 
time, what was concluded at Passau?— 9. Who bore a prominent part with Luther I 
What is said of Henry VIII. of England ? Of Scotland ? 



THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 333 

society of men, destined to carry the light of Christianity to nations 
over which the gloom of paganism still prevailed. The founder of 
this new order was Ignatius of Loyola, born in the year 1491, of a 
noble family in Spain. On the 15th of August iu the year 1534, 
Ignatius and nine champions, by ; vow consecrated themselves to 
God, for the purpose of promoting his service, and procuring the 
salvation of souls. In 1537, they^repaired to Rome, and made an 
offer of their services to pope Paul III. The pontiff gave them a 
gracious reception, applauded their zeal, and in 1540 erected them 
into a religious order, under the title of the Society of Jesus. To 
instruct children and the ignorant in the principles and duties of 
religion ; to assist the faithful in their spiritual wants ; to announce 
the truths of Christianity to pagan nations, marked the spirit and 
design of the institution of St. Ignatius. 

11. But as these subjects could not be attained without the 
united force of virtue and learning, the study of the various branches 
of polite literature, from the first rudiments of grammar to the sub- 
lime lessons of astronomy, is enjoyed as a sacred duty on the mem- 
bers of this order. Shortly after the foundation of the society, its 
members rapidly increased, and in a few years, they had colleges 
established in various towns of Italy, Portugal, and Spain. St. 
Francis Xavier, one of the first companions of Ignatius, was 
sent to carry the light of Christianity to pagan nations of the east. 
The principal scene of his labor was in the empire of Japan ; from 
thence he passed over to China, where he died in 1552. So abund- 
ant were the fruits of his labor, that in the short space of one 
month, he is said to have baptized with his own hand ten thousand 
persons. About the time that St. Francis had finished his course 
in Asia, Joseph Anchieta undertook a similar mission among the 
Indians of South America. 

12. The Reformed churches differ materially from each other in 
form and in belief ; all, however, take the Bible as the sole rule of 
faith, and maintain the right of private interpretation. 

10. What did the church of Rome behold? Who was the founder of this order? 
What was done on the 15th of August ? And in the year 1534 ? What did the pontiff 
do ? What marked the spirit of the institution of Ignatius? — 11. What is enjoined as a 
sacred duty on the members of this order? What is said of St. Francis Xavier! 
When did he die ? What is said of the fruit of his labors 1 By whom was a similar 
mission undertaken in South America?— 12. How do the reformed churches duffer ? 



APPENDIX. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



Xs Coxgjiess, July 4th, 1776 
The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. 

Whbjt, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the laws of Nature and of Na-ture's God 
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires thai 
they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident; — that all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, de- 
riving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is 
the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its 
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, thai governments 
long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; 
and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more dis- 
posed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by 
abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
nght, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
01 these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
lo alter their former systems of government. The history of the present 
king of Great Britain, is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, 
ail having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

lie has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation, till his assent should 
be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to al'end 
to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the righ- 
c£ representation in the legislature — a right inestimable lo them, and 
formidable to tyran s only. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 385 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortahle, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the 
sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation have returned to the people at large, for their exercise ; 
the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of 
invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; re- 
fusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing hi3 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without 
the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops amongst us : 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states: 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences: 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pro- 
vince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its 
boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves in- 
vented with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- 
tection, and waging war against us. 

lie has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled 
in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civ- 
ilised nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizen, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country,to become the executioners of 
their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

33 



386 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



He lias excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- 
ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless In- 
dian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress 
in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been an- 
swered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus 
marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legis- 
lature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have 
reminded them of the circumstances of our migration and settlement 
here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, 
and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to 
disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our 
connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the 
voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acqui- 
esce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them 
as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war, in peace friends. 

WE, therefore, the representatives of the United States of Ame- 
rica, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and 
by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly pub- 
lish and declare, that these united colonies are, and of right ought 
to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all 
allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion be- 
tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, to- 
tally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they 
have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, esta- 
blish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independ- 
ent states may of right do. And for the support of this»declara- 
tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our 
sacred honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK 



New-Hampshire. 
JOSIAH BARTLETT, 
WILLIAM WHIPPLE, 
MATTHEW THORNTON. 

Massachusetts-Be, y. 
SAMUEL ADAMS, 
JOHN ADAMS, 
ROBERT TREAT PAINE, 
ELBRIDGE GERRY. 

Rhode-Island, §-c. 
STEPHEN HOPKINS, 
WILLIAM ELLERY. 

Connecticut. 

ROGER SHERMAN, 
SAMUEL HUNTINGTON," 
WILLIAM WILLIAMS, 
OLIVER WOLCOTT. 



New- York. 
WILLIAM FLOYD, 
PHILIP LIVINGSTON, 
FRANCIS LEWIS, 
LEWIS MORRIS. 

New-Jersey. 
RICHARD STOCKTON, 
JOHN WITHERSPOON, 
FRANCIS HOPKINSON, 
JOHN HART, 
ABRAHAM CLARKE. 

Pennsylvania 
ROBERT MORRIS, 
BENJAMIN RUSH, 
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 
JOHN MORTON, 
GEORGE CLYMER. 
JAMES SMITH. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 



387 



GEORGE TAYLOR, 
JAMES WILSON, 
GEORGE ROSS. 

Dclaivare. 
(LESAR RODNEY, 
GEORGE READ, 
THOMAS McKEAN 

Maryland. 
SAMUEL CHASE, 
WILLIAM PACA, 
THOMAS STONE, 
CHARLES CARROLL, of 
Carrollton. 

Virginia. 
GEORGE WYTHE, 
RICHARD HENRY LEE, 
THOMAS JEFFERSON, 



BENJAMIN HARRISON, 
THOMAS NELSON, Jr 
FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE. 
CARTER BRAXTON. 

North Carolina. 
WILLIAM HOOPER, 
JOSEPH HEWES, 
JOHN PENN. 

South Carolina. 
EDWARD RUTLEDGE, 
THOMAS HEYWARD, Jr. 
THOMAS LYNCH, Jr. 
ARTHUR MIDDLETON. 

Georgia. 
BURTON GWINNETT, 
LYMAN HALL, 
GEORGE WALTON 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
anion, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the 
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. — SECTION" I. 

1. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested in a Con- 
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and 
house of representatives. 

SECTION II. 

1. The house of representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several states ; and 
the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained 
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of 
the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
of that state in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several states which may be included within this union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shallbe determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 



388 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within the three yeara 
alter the first meeting ?f the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law 
direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative, 
and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New-Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts eight ; Rhode Island and 
Providence Plantations one; Connecticut five ; New-York six; Ntw- Jersey 
four; Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one; Maryland six; Virginia ten; 
North-Carolina five ; South-Carolina five ; and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill up such 
vacancies. 

5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

SECTION III. 

i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and 
each senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three 
masses. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration 
of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth 
year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacan- 
cies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legis- 
lature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appoint- 
ments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which 
he shall be chosen. 

4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the 
senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The senate shall choc se their other officers, and also a president 
pro-tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall ex- 
ercise the office of president of the United States. 

6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation, 
When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall 
preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of 
two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office 
of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States ; but the party con- 
victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment, and punishment according to law. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The times, places, and manner cf holding elections for senators 
and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 389 

thereoi out the congress may, at any time, by law, make cr alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

section v. 
1 Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and quah 
fications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute i 
quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day 
to day, and maybe authorized to compel the attendance of absent mem 
bers, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may pro- 
vide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- 
ment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either 
house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, 
be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the f wo houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI. 

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for 
their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury ot 
the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and 
breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance 
at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or returning 
from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall 
not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding 
any office under the United States shall be a member of either house 
during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

1. All bills for raising revenues shall originate in the house of repre- 
sentatives; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments, as 
on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives 
and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the presi- 
dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, hs 
shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, iwo-thinte oi 
that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, 
and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But 

33* 



390 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas 
and nays, and the names of the persons voting Tor and against the bill, 
shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any biil 
shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays ex 
ccpted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a 
law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress, by theii 
adjournment, prevent its return ; in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the 
senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except on a 
question of adjournment,) shall be presented to the president of the 
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds 
of the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION" Till. 

The congress shall have power — 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay tflfc 
debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the 
United States : but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniforn. 
throughout the United States : 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United Slates : 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
crates, and with the Indian tribes: 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws od 
the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States: 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
lo fix the standard of weights and measures : 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States : 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads : 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, 
for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to theii 
respective writings and discoveries : 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: To define 
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and 
offenses against the law of nations : 

10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water: 

11. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money co 
that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 

12. To provide and maintain a navy: 

13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces : 

14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
unics, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 

15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
and for governing such part of them as maybe employea m the service 
of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appoint' 
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according 
tc the discipline prescribed by congress : 

16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular states, and the acceptance of congress - , become the seat o/ 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 391 

government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all 
places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the state in wnich 
the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock 
yards, and other needful buildings: — and, 

17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by 
this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any de- 
partment or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states 
now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the 
congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a 
tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dol- 
lars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may 
require it. 

3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state 
No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, 
to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound 
to or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence 
of appropriations made bylaw; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published 
from time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without 
the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or 
title of any kind whaterer, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

section x. 

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation , 
grant letters of marque or reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; 
make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; 
pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obli- 
gation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any im 
posts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the neat produce of all 
duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for 
the treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the congress. No state shall, without the 
consent of the congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships 
of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with an- 
other state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually 
invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. SECTION I. 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of fouj 



392 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

rears, and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same term, 
be elected as follows : 

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the congress; 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the per- 
sons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they 
shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The 
president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the 
president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 
have an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall 
immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for president; and if no per- 
son have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, me said house 
shall, in like manner, choose the president. But, in choosing the presi- 
dent, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each 
state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a 
member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all 
the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice 
of the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the 
electors shall be the vice-president. But if there should remain two or 
more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them, by ballot, 
the vice-president. No. 3 has been annulled and supplied. 

4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office o^ president: neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office, who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, and the congress 
may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or in- 
ability, both of the president and vice-president, declaring what officer 
shall then act as president; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. 

7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : 

9. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of the president of the United States, and will, to the best of my 

\ 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 393 

ability, preserve, protect, and defend th* conoficu^or. of the United 
Siates. 

SECTION IT. 

1. The president shaL be commander-in-chief of the army and navy 
of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called 
into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, 
in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, 
upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and 
he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against 
the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur: and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the 
United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided 
for, and which shall be established by law. But the congress may, by 
law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, 
in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart- 
ments. 

3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions, which 
shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III. 

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such mea- 
sures as he shall judge necessary and expedient: he may, on extraordi- 
nary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of 
disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he 
may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall re- 
ceive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all the officers 
of the United States. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction 
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. SECTION I. 

I. The judicial power of the United States sha*l be vested in one 
supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may, from 
time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior: and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II. 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law <md equity 
arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and trea- 
ties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases 
affecting ambassadors, other piblic minis'ers and consuls; to all cases 



394 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which tne 
United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more 
states ; between a state and citizens of another stale ; between citizens 
of different states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands 
under grants of different states ; and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In ali cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the congress 
shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be 
by jury, and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes 
shall have been committed; but when not committed in any state, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the congress may by law have 
directed. 

SECTION III. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi- 
mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open 
court. 

2. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of trea 
son : but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or for- 
feiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. SECTION I. 

1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, 
records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the congress 
may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, 
and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION II. 

1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and 
immunities of citizens in the several states. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on de- 
mand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be de- 
livered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one state under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regu- 
lation therein, be discharged from such service or labor; but shall te 
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
be due. 

SECTION III. 

1. New states may be admitted by the congress into this union ; but 
no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any 
ofner state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more 
state?, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
states' concerned, as well as of the congress, 

2. The congress shall have poAver to dispose of, and make ali needful 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 395 

rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belong 
ng to the United States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so 
construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any 
particular state. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The United States shall guaranty to every state in this union, a re- 
publican form of government, and shall protect each of them against in« 
vasion, and, on application of !;s legislature, or of the executive, (when 
the legislature cannot be convened,) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

1. The congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, sha!l 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the congress ; provided, that no amend 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundrevl 
and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article : and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adop. 
tion of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under 
this constitution, as under the confederation. 

2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States, which shall 
be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby; 
any thing in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary not- 
withstanding. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- 
oers of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial offi- 
cers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound 
by oath or affirmation to support this constitution, but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this constitution between the states so ratifying 
the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present, ths 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have 
hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 

President, and Deputy from Virginia. 



396 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 



New-Hampshire. 
JOHN LANGDON. 
NICHOLAS GILMAN. 

Massachusetts. 
NATHANIEL GORHAM, 
RUFUS KING. 

Connecticut. 
WM. SAMUEL JOHNSON, 
ROGER SHERMAN. 

New-York. 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 

New-Jersey. 
WM. LIVINGSTON, 
DAVID BREARLY, 
WM. PATTERSON, 
JONATHAN DAYTON. 

Pennsylvania, 

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 
THOMAS MIFFLIN, 
ROBERT MORRIS, 
GEORGE CLYMER, 
THOMAS FITZSIMONS, 
JARED INGERSOLL, 
JAMES WILSON, 
GOU VERNE UR MORRIS, 

Attest: 



Dclaivare. 
GEORGE READ, 
GUNNING BEDFORD, Jr, 
JOHN DICKENSON, 
RICHARD BASSETT, 
JACOB BROOM. 

Maryland. 
JAMES McHENRY, 
DANIEL, of St. Thomas Jenifer, 
DANIEL CARROLL. 

Virginia. 
JOHN BLAIR, 
JAMES MADISON, Jr. 

North Carolina. 
WM. BLOUNT, 

RICHARD DOBBS SPRAIGHT, 
HUGH WILLIAMSON. 

South Carolina. 
JOHN RUTLEDGE, 
C. COTESWORTH PINKNEi", 
CHARLES PINKNEY, 
PIERCE BUTLER. 

Georgia. 
WILLIAM FEW, 
ABRAHAM BALDWIN. 

WM. JACKSON, 

Secretary* 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 



Article 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the 
freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably 
to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

Art. 2. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a 
free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

Art. 3. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house 
without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner 
to be prescribed by law. 

Art. 4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall 
not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, 
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place 
to be searched, and the persons cr things to be seized. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 397 

Art. 5 No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime,unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service, in time of war or public danger; nor shall any 
person fee subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life or limb, nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a wit- 
ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with 
out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public 
use, without just compensation. 

Art. 6. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the righ 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and dis- 
trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the na- 
ture and cause of the accusation: to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his 
favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and 
no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of 
the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- 
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Art. 9. The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights, shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the consti- 
tution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states re- 
spectively, or to the people. 

Art. 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

Art. 12, § 1. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and 
vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom at least 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall 
name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct 
ballots the person voted for as vice-president; and they shall make 
distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all per- 
sons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, 
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the 
seat of the government of the Uni.sd States, directed to the president 
of the senate; the president of the senate shall, in the presence of the 
senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the 
votes shall then be counted; the p?rson having the greatest number of 
votes for president, shall be the president, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of electors appointed: and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceed- 
ing three, on the list of those voted for as president, the house of repre 
sentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But, in 
choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, ihe represen- 
tation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall 
consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a 
majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
house of representatives shall not choose a president whenever the righ 
of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March ncxi 

34 



398 mOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

following, then the vice-president shall act as president, as in the case of 
the death or other constitutional disability of the president. 

3. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice-president, 
shall be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose the 
vice-president: a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of 
the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
be necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of president, 
shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United States. 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 



The design of this biographical sketch, is to give a short account of 
such distinguished characters as could not have been previously intro- 
duced, without interrupting, too materially, that close connection of 
events, so requisite in a compendium of history. Hence the names, 
kings, emperors, &c, whose lives are immediately connected with the 
countries to which they belonged, are generally omitted in this outline. 

Adam, the first of the human race, created by the Almighty from the 
dust of the earth, and placed in a delightful garden of Eden, with only 
one restriction laid upon him, namely, to abstain from eating the fruit 
of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; this injunction, however, 
he violated; and in consequence of his disobedience, he was driven 
from the earthly Paradise ; and died at the age of 930 years. 

Ashur, one of the sons of Shem, built Nineveh, and is supposed to 
have been the founder of the Assyrian empire; little is recorded of him 
in scripture. 

Anacreox, a Greek poet, who flourished about 500 years before the 
Christian era. His odes have been much admired for their sweetness, 
gaiety and elegance. He lived to the age of 85 years, and his death 
was occasioned by being choked by the seed of a grape. 

Archimedes, a famous geometrician, was born at Syracuse. At tho 
time when the Romans under Marcellus besieged that city, he con* 
structed machines which sunk several of their vessels, and others 
he set on fire by burning glasses. He was killed by a Roman soldier, 
who was ignorant of his character, while the philosopher was engaged 
Ui his study, A. C. 208. 

iEsop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist, flourished about 580 
years before the Christian era, and is supposed to have been the in- 
ventor of fabulous writing. He was originally a slave, but finally ob- 
tained his liberty. He travelled over a greater part. of Greece and Egypt, 
but spent much of his time at the court of Crcesus, king of Lydia, by 
whom he was commissioned to consult the oracle of Delphi. He 
offended the Delphi ans by his sarcastic remarks, by whom he was 
killed by being thrown from a rock. 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 399 

Aristotle, one of the most distinguished philosophers cf antiquity, 
was a man possessed of extraordinary powers of intellect. His writings 
treat on almost every branch of knowledge in his time; — moral and 
natural philosophy, metaphysics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, ana 
politics, al 1 occupied his pen. He was moderate in his meals, slep: 
ittle, and was indefatigably industrious. He taught in the Lyceum at 
Athens. A few momenta before his death, he is said to have uttered 
these words: "I entered this world m impurity; I have lived in anxievy? 
I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes, pity me." He died at the 
age of 63 years. 

Alexander, the Great, the son of Philip, king of Macedon, was born 
at Pella, 335 years before the Christian era. At the age of ten years, 
he was placed for education under the care of Aristotle. When he 
came to the throne, he immediately determined on the invasion of Asia; 
defeated Darius in three sanguinary battles, reduced Egypt, Media, 
Syria, Persia, and spread his conquests over a great part of India. On 
his return from India, he made Babylon the seat of his Asiatic empire, 
where he died in the 32d year of his age, of a fever occasioned by ex- 
cessive intemperance. Alexander was the most renowned hero of an- 
tiquity, surpassing all others in the rapidity, extent, and splendor of his 
conquests ; perhaps no other individual ever produced greater misery 
on mankind, if, to the slaughter occasioned by his own wars, we take 
into consideration the influence which example has had on the career 
of others, who have made him their model. He possessed abilities and 
talents, which might have rendered him distinguished as a statesman 
and a benefactor to his species, yet his military achievements alone 
have acquired him the surname of Great. 

Angelo, Michael, a distinguished painter, sculptor, and architect, was 
born in 1474. In architecture he surpassed all the moderns, and is 
thought to have been the greatest designer that ever lived. His most 
celebrated painting is the Last Judgment. His architectural abilities are 
best displayed on the Church of St. Peter, at Rome, the building of 
which he completed. His style is that of grandeur and sublimity, 
united with the utmost simplicity and beauty. He died in the 90th year 
of his age. 

Addison, Joseph, an elegant English essayist and poet, was the sen 
of a clergyman, and born in the year 1672. His merits, as a writer, 
procured for him public employment, and in 1717, he was raised to the 
oflice of Secretary of State. His most admired productions in prose, are 
to be found in the Spectator. He is distinguished for a delicate and 
gentle humor, and his style is remarkable for purity and ease. His 
poetry is less admired. His tragedy of Cato, however, has some merits 
Addison died at the age of 57. 

Abraham, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew nation, was the 
son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. After the death of his father, he 
removed into the land of Canaan, which God promised to give to his 
posterity. In the 100th year of his age his son Isaac was born. After 
passing through various scenes of life, he was called to the severe trial 
of offering up his son Isaac in sacrifice at the command of the Deity. 
All his fondest hopes were reposed in that son, yet ne hesitated not a 
moment in the execution of the divine behest. But at the moment, how- 
ever, in which his arm was raised to take the life of his son, God inter 
posed, and accepted the obedience of the patriarch in the place of tha 



400 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

sacrifice, commended his faith, and thus rescued Isaac from his im- 
pending fate. Abraham died at the age of 175 years. 

Bfde, an English historian, surnamed the Venerable. He was born 
at Wearmouth, about the year 672. In his youth he studied with much 
diligence, and soon became eminent for his learning. His most cele- 
brated work is his Ecclesiastical History of England, which he published 
in 731 He was a man of exemplary piety. His last sickness was a 
consumption, which terminated in the asthma. He supported his afflic- 
tion with great firmness, and during his extreme weakness, never 
omitted the duties x>f his station. He died in 735. 

Burns, Robert, a celebrated Scotch poet, was born at Ayr, in 1759. 
He seems to have been a poet by nature ; his poems in the Scottish 
dialect, are remarkable for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. They 
no sooner appeared in print, than he was called from the plough to asso- 
ciate with men of letters. He died at the age of 39. His death was 
nastened by intemperance and licentious pleasures. 

Belisarius, an illustrious general under the emperor Justinian. Ht 
repeatedly saved the empire by his valor ; even when far advanced in 
years and scarcely able to wield his sword, he marched against the 
Huns, who made an irruption into the empire, and defeated them with 
great slaughter. In return for his many services, the suspicious empe 
ror deprived him of all his honors, and condemned him to an igno 
minious confinement, which lasted for several months. It is believed 
that he again recovered the friendship of the emperor. He died, 
A. D- 565. 

Bacon, Rope,, an eminent philosopher, was born in the year 1214, in 
England, of a respectable family, and became a monk of the Franciscan 
order. To the comprehensive mind of Bacon, many of the discoveries 
made by the genius and toil of later ages were known. He was ac- 
quainted with the structure of the air pump, with laws of optics, and the 
power of glasses. He gave such a clear description of gunpowder, that 
it is evident that he was its inventor. His writings amount to above 80 
treatises on various subjects, but his chief production is his Opus Ma jus, 
or Great Work, which he wrote while imprisoned through the jealousy 
of his enemies. He died at the age of 80. 

Bacon, Sir Francis, an eminent English philosopher, was born in 
1561. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and gained him 
the favorable notice of Elizabeth. On the accession of James I., he rose 
to power ; was made attorney-general, keeper of the seals, lord chan- 
cellor, and finally raised to the peerage. His elevation excited the envy 
of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery and corruption in the 
office of chancellor ; in consequence of which he was fined £40,000, and 
sentenced to imprisonment in the Tower. As an author, his Noiftent Or* 
ganum Scicntiarum, has immortalized his name. He was the first who 
taught the proper method of studying the sciences, or rather, to point 
oat the way in which we •should begin and carry on our pursuit of know- 
ledge, in order to arrive at truth ; and has been styled the pioneer of 
nature, and the priest of nature's mysteries. 

Burke, Edmund, an eminent Irish orator and political writer, was the 
son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, where he was born, in 1730 
After studying at Trinity College, Dublin, he went to London and entered 
at the Middle Temple; but without paying any serious attention to *he 
iaw, he devoted his time principally to literature and politics. His style 
and arguments as a writer soon attracted notice, and his Essay on tlu 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 401 

Sublime, gained for him universal admiration. In 1765, he was sent to 
parliament, where he combined the character of an elegant wrter with 
an eminent speaker. During the war of the American Revolution, he 
exerted all the power of his eloquence against the measures of the 
British. When the French Revolution broke out, he became alarmed 
at the progress of licentious principles, and with a view of counteract- 
ing them in England, he published his celebrated Reflections. For some 
time before his death, he retired from public life. He died in 1797. As 
an author, his merits are universally acknowledged; he was copious, 
elegant, and forcible. 

Buonaparte, Napoleon, was a native of Corsica, where he was born 
in 1769. The career of this extraordinary man surpassed, in many re* 
spects, that of every great conqueror who preceded him. In his 27th 
year, he was raised to the command of the French army; at the age of 
30, he caused himself to be elected iirst consul; and in his 35th year, 
he was proclaimed emperor of France. During the ten years that he 
possessed the imperial throne, he was the most powerful potentate, not 
only of his age, but of modern times, and made the world tremble al 
the terror of his name. He raised to the rank of kings, his three bro- 
thers, his brother-in-law, and three German electors ; also BernadotU, 
one of his generals, was raised to the throne of Sweden. He united 
in his person the three-fold character of conqueror, usurper, and legis- 
lator. He triumphed over civilized enemies ; legislated in a refined 
age; and seized upon the scepters of his most powerful rivals. To him 
France is indebted for an admirable code of laws, in the formation ot 
which he was the efficient agent. No man ever enjoyed a greater op 
portunity of benefiting his fellow man than Buonaparte; yet this oppor 
tunity was cast away, except so far as it suited his insatiable ambition 
and lust of power, to which he was ready to sacrifice every principle of 
justice and humanity. He chose to be an Alexander, or a Caesar, rather 
than a Washington; a subverter, rather than a protector of liberty; a 
terror and a scourge, rather than a delight and a blessing to mankind. 
The close of his eventful life, furnishes a most instructive lesson on the 
instability of all human things, and the vanity of human glory. He died 
on the island of St. Helena, on the Kill of May, 1821, in the 6th year of 
his captivity, and 52d of his age. [Fui I he principal events of his life, set 
Fbajjce,] 

Caix, the first born of the Human family, was distinguished for his 
wickedness and for being the first «>f murderers; he killed his brothei 
Jlbel through jealousy, because his brother's sacrifice was more accept 
able to the Lord than his own. Nothing is mentioned in scripture of 
the time or manner of his death. 

Cato, an illustrious Roman general who took part against Caesar. 
After the battle of Pharsalia, he returned to Utica; but finding it impos- 
sible to resist the power of the conqueror, he resolved not to survive (he 
liberty of his country After supping cheerfully with his friends, he 
returned to his chamber, and having read Plato's dialogue on the im- 
mortality of the soul several times, he stabbed himself with his own 
sword. 

Ckchops, a native of Egvpt, who led a colony into Greece and laid the 
foundation of Athens, A. C. 1556. He taught his subjects the cultiva» 
tion of the olive, and was the first who raised an altar to Jupiter, and 
offered sacrifices to him. He reigned over the counlryfrr 50 years, and 
on his dea.'.h he was succeeded by Cranaus. 

34* 



402 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Cadmus, a Phoenician who built Thebes, and was the first who intro 
duced letters into Greece. His alphabet consisted of only sixteen lei 
ters, to which eight were afterwards added. 

Cicero, Marcus Tulliits,ihe prince of Roman orators and philosophers, 
was the son of a Roman knight. His father perceiving his promising 
abilities, procured for him the most celebrated masters of his time. He 
served one campaign under Sylla, but on his return to Rome appeared 
as pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius and superior 
eloquence soon raised him into notice. Having passed through the in- 
ferior honors of the state, he was at length elevated to the office of 
consul; and during his administration, he detected and crushed the 
conspiracy of Catiline. On this occasion he received the thanks of the 
people, and was styled the father of his country; but his refusal to 
second the arbitrary measures of Ccesar and Pompey caused his banish- 
ment; he retired to Greece, but was allowed to return after an absence 
of sixteen months. After the death of Ccesar, he again espoused the 
republican party, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, one of the 
leading members of the triumvirate, by whose order the illustrious oratoi 
was assassinated in the 64th year of his age, A. C. 43. 

Cesar, Caius Julius. This extraordinary man united in his person 
(he threefold character of warrior, historian, and statesman. Though 
ambition was his ruling passion, yet he possessed the most splendid en- 
dowments of genius, and many noble qualities of the heart ; clemency 
seems to have been his predominant virtue. On passing a small vil- 
lage among the Alps, on his way to take possession of his government 
in Spain, before the formation of the triumvirate, he remarked, that "he 
would rather be the first man in that village than the second man in 
Rome." He frequently made use of this verse of Euripides : " That if 
right and justice were ever te be violated, they were to be violated for 
the sake of reigning." In his military career, he was probably never 
surpassed. He was so much the idol of his troops, that in any impor- 
tant conjuncture, his lieutenant could say nothing more impressive to 
them than, " Soldiers, imagine that Caesar beholds you !" He fought no 
less than fifty battles, in which 1,192,000 men are said to have been slain. 
In the midst of his military enterprises, he found time to become the 
author of several works, of which only the memoirs of his wars are now 
extant; these are much admired for their elegance as well as the cor 
rectness of style. As an orator, he would have rivalled Cicero had he 
devoted himself to the bar; he spoke with the same spirit with which he 
fought. He was assassinated in the senate house in the 56th year of 
his age, A. C. 44. [For his achievements, see Rome.] 

C owper, William, a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 
1730. In the early part of his life, he was afflicted with a distressing 
melancholy brought on by serious reflection on religious subjects; on 
one occasion he even attempted his life. He did not become an author 
antil the age of 50 years. The first volume of his poems appeared in 
1782, and the second volume in 1785. His most admired work is his 
Task, which abounds with beauty of sentiment, combined with harmony 
and sweetness of style. Cowper died in 1800; aged 70. 

Calvin, Joan, a coadjutor of Luther in the Reformation, was born ai 
N'oyon, in Picardy, July 10th, 1509. He spent most of his active life at 
Geneva, where he filled the chair of professor of divinity, and warmly 
espoused the cause of the Reformation. He died in 1564. 

Cobbett, William. This distinguished man was born in England 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 403 

in the year 1762, of humbJe parentage, and possessed but few advan- 
tages for education. In early life, he followed the profession cf arms 
as a common soldier, but employed his leisure moments in atten- 
tive reading. He soor. emerged from this situation, and appeared in 
public as a bold and elegant writer. The general characteristics of his 
style are purity, perspicuity and masculine vigor; frequently eloquent,, 
but often attended with a strain of torturing sarcasm, contemptuous 
jocularity and fierce invective. Cobbett is by far the most voluminous 
writer who has lived for centuries. He died in 1835. 

Copernicus, Nicholas, an eminent astronomer and the discoverer of 
the true system of the universe, was born at Thomc,m Prussia. He early 
devoted himself to the study of mathematics, applied his knowledge to 
an examination of the different theories respecting the universe; and 
after twenty years of profound investigation, he arrived at this impor- 
tant truth, that the sun is placed in the centre of the universe to illumi- 
nate and control the whole system. For various reasons he concealed 
this great discovery for thirty years. At length, through the importuni 
lies of his friends, he consented to have his work published; as soon as 
completed, a copy of it was brought to him, and in a few hours after- 
wards he was seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated 
his life in the 70th year of his age, A. D. 1543. 

Columbus, Christopher, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of Ame- 
rica, was born at Genoa in 1442. At the age of fourteen he entered on 
a seafaring life, and after a variety of adventures, he went to Lisbon, 
where he married the daughter of Pcrestrello, a navigator of considerable 
eminence, whose journals were peculiarly beneficial to Columbus. At 
this period the attention of the Portuguese was directed towards finding 
a passage to the East Indies; this they expected to attain by doubling 
the Cape of Good Hope, and then sailing towards the East. Inflamed 
by the desire of accomplishing so noble an enterprise, the active mind 
of Columbus, after attentively comparing the observations of modern 
pilots with the conjectures of the ancients, at length concluded, that by 
sailing directly west from Europe across the Atlantic, new countries, 
which he supposed to form a part of Asia, must infallibly be discovered. 
The spherical figure of the earth was known, and its magnitude ascer- 
tained with some degree of accuracy; and Sir John Mandeville had 
even demonstrated that it might be circumnavigated. Convinced of the 
correctness of his theory, Columbus was anxious to test it by experi- 
ment. At length, after many delays, he obtained assistance from Isa- 
bella, queen of Spain, and on the 3d of August, 1492, sailed on his 
voyage of discovery. On the 1 1th of October, the same year, he came 
in sight of an island, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador, one of 
the Bahamas; he also discovered Cuba and St. Domingo, which he called 
Hispaniola, and returned in May of the following year. He maae three 
other voyages to the New World, in the last of which he was ship- 
wrecked on the coast of Jamaica. Here for a time he obtained astonish- 
ing command over the Indians by predicting an eclipse of the moon. 
He died shortly after his return to Spain, at Valladolid, in th ? 70th year 
of his age, A. D. 1506. [For further particulars, see America] 

Dido was the daughter of Bclus, king of Tyre. Her husoand was 
murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus. The disconsolate 
princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement. 
A storm drove them upon the coast cf Africa, where they founded the 
Ciiy of Carthage. Her beauty and the fame of her enterpr.se, gained 



404 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

ncr many admirers; her subjects wished to compel her to marry the 

ting of Mauritania, but she killed herself rather than enter into a matri- 
monial alliance with one for whom she could entertain no affection. 

Drydkv, John, a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 1631. 
He first exhibited his poetical powers in an eulogium on Oliver Crom- 
well ; and this was followed, in 1GG0, by a poem, " on the happy return 
and Restoration of his sacred majesty, Charles II." On the accession 
of James II., he became a Roman Catholic, and was continued in the 
appointment of Poet Lavrcat, which he had held under Charles. After 
the revolution, he was deprived of all his honors, and from that time 
until his death, he was obliged to rely for subsistence on the immediate 
profits of his poetical productions. His Ode on S-t. Cecilia's Day, his 
translation of Virgil, Juvenal, and Perseus, are lasting proofs of his 
poetical genius. His style is flowing and musical, at the same time 
grand and energetic. He died in the year 1700. 

Dkmostiiknks, the prince of orators, was born at Athens. His early 
education Avas much neglected, through the treachery of his guardians, 
who squandered away his property. Perhaps no individual ever aspired 
to the art of oratory with more impediments to overcome than Demos- 
thenes; and no one ever attained to a higher excellence in that art. 
besides an impediment in his speech, he had a weak voice, accom- 
panied with a shortness of breath; the movements of his body, more- 
over, were most ungraceful. That he might remedy the imperfection 
m his speech, he accustomed himself to declaim with pebbles in his 
mouth; and in order to strengthen his voice and lungs, he frequently 
harangued on the sea shore, where the agitation of the waves caused 
him to exert his utmost strength, that he might be heard above the noise, 
and at the same time served to give him an idea of the commotion of 
popular assemblies; and finally, he corrected the awkwardness of his 
gesture, by speaking before a mirror, and by taking lessons from the 
most accomplished comedians. That he might apply himself more to 
his studies, he retired to a cave, and shaved one half of his head, so 
that he could not decently appear abroad. Having thus qualified him 
self, he came forth from his retreat, and presented himself before the 
public. His great abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head 
of the government, where he exerted all the powers of his eloquence 
against the ambitious designs of Philip, king of Macedon. His orations 
against that prince, are called Philippic?, a name since applied to all 
satirical productions. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes or.ue 
more endeavored to rouse his countrymen to an effort for the recovery 
of their liberty; the attempt was ineffectual, and Athens was obliged to 
purchase peace by the sacrifice of ten of her public speakers. Demos 
thenes, to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies^ suffered a volun 
tary death by taking poison, in the 60th year of his age, A. D. 322. 

Eve, the name of the first woman; she was formed by the Creator 
of a rib taken from the side of Adam, while in a deep sleep; thus slu 
became the "bone of his bones, and the flesh of his flesh," and was 
given to him as his wife. She was the first transgressor; being deceived 
by Satan in the form of a serpent, she eat of the forbidden fruit, and 
offered it to her husband, who also followed her example. In punish- 
ment for this offense, she was banished from Paradise with Adam, and 
subjected to all the miseries that have since afflicted the human family. 

Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, was born at Salamis 
A.s a poet, he is peculiarly ha**py in expressing the passions of love, 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 405 

particularly the more tender and animated; his thoughts are sublime, 
and his productions abound with many moral reflections. He spent the 
latter days of his life at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia. His 
end was tragical; in one of his solitary walks, he was attacked and 
devoured by the hounds of the king, in the 78th year of his age, 
A. D. 407 

Euclid, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, was born at Alex- 
andria, and flourished near 300 years before the Christian era. His 
writings were numerous; but his 15 books on the elements of mathe- 
matics, which consist of problems and theorems, with demonstrations,* 
nave acquired an imperishable fame, and have suffered but little altera- 
tion to the present lime. 

Franklin, Benjamin. This distinguished philosopher and discoverei 
of electricity, was born at Boston, in 1706. In youth, he was appren- 
ticed to an uncle in the printing business. As his occupation allowed 
him but little time for study, he supplied the deficiency by carefully 
reading at night the works which he had printed during the day, and 
by this means soon acquired extensive information. He was a member 
of the American Congress during the eventful period of the Revolution^ 
As a public negotiator, he effectually secured the honor and interest of 
the country. He died in 1790, while governor of Pennsylvania,at the 
advanced age of 84 years. His discoveries in science have associated 
his name with that of Newton. He is the father of that branch of phi- 
losophy, which explains the laws of the electric fluid, and the utility of 
lightning rods will for ever point to him as a temporal benefactor of tho 
human race. 

Gibbon, Edward, an eminent English historian, was born at Putney. 
in 1737. His most important work is his "Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire," which he completed after twenty years' labor. It is 
an elaborate production and generally accurate. In principle, he was 
a decided skeptic and unbeliever; he wrote with a view of establishing 
his principles ; hence throughout his works the seeds of infidelity are 
widely disseminated, a fact which renders his productions higMy danger- 
ous to the uncautious reader. He scoffs at Christianity, and rndeavors 
to turn it to ridicule whenever an opportunity offers. He died of the 
dropsy in 1794. 

Galilko, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in mathematics 
and astronomy. He embraced the Copernican system, which he en- 
deavored to establish from the Bible. For thus attempting to blend hi3 
astronomical theories with the sacred writings, he was summoned be- 
fore the tribunal of the inquisition at Rome. Some years after this, lie 
published his Dialogues and Memoirs, in which he again endeavored to 
raise the system of the rotation of the earth to the dignity of a dogmati- 
cal tenet. Being again cited before the tribunal at Rome, he was lodged 
in the palace of Tuscany, and for a short time in the apartment of the 
attorney-general. After having received his sentence and made his 
recantation, Galileo obtained permission to visit his native country, 
where he died at the advanced age of 78 years. 

Goldsmith, Oliver. This eminent poet, historian, and miscellaneous 
writer, was born in Ireland in 1729. He made a tour through Europe 
on foot, and supported himself by playing on the flute. Having at 
length returned to London, he commenced his literary career The 
publication of The Traveller, in 1765, obtained for him a high poeti. 
cal celebrity, with many distinguished friends. The Pevericd HY/agc, 



406 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

die most admired of his poetical productions, was published in 1769. 
His comedies, The Good-natured Man, and She Stoops to Conquer, are also 
much admired. His History of Rome, History of England, and History of 
Animated Nature, with the Vicar of Wakefield, are among his principal 
works. He died in the 46th year of his age. His life and character 
were eccentric, but interesting. Generosity, carelessness, and impru- 
dence, were the distinguishing features of his disposition. His prodi 
gality always kept him in poverty. Sweetness of fancy and tenderness 
of feeling are the peculiar features of his poetry. His expression is 
natural and idiomatic, yet in the highest degree select and refined. 

Guttenberg, John, the inventor of the art of printing. It has been 
contended that Lewis Coster, of Haarlem, invented the use of move- 
able type ; but it seems that opinion is without foundation, and that the 
art of printing, as practiced at present, was discovered by Guttcnbcrg, 
of Mayence, about the year 1438, although it was several years after 
this period, before the art was brought to any perfection. In 1450, Gut- 
tenberg entered into partnership at Mayence, with John Fust. It was 
about this period, that the method of casting the character in metal was 
discovered. This improvement is supposed to have been made by 
Schgeffer, who assisted them at this time. The first printers carried 
their types about in bags, and printed small pamphlets and the like. 
The first entire book issued from their press, was the Psalter in Latin, 
printed at Mentz, in 1457, of which there are two copies yet extant, one 
in the imperial library at Vienna, the other purchased by Louis XVIII. 
of France, for the sum of 12,000 francs. A complete edition of the 
Bible, in Latin, was printed m two folio vols., at Mentz, in the year 
1462. From this epoch, the progress of typography was rapid, and 
before the close of the fifteenth century, various editions of the Bible, 
with a vast number of other works, were published in different parts of 
Europe. 

Homer was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but also the 
earliest, whose works have survived the devastations of time. He is 
regarded as the most ancient of all profane classical writers. The place 
of his nativity is unknown; several cities claim the honor of having 
given him birth. Little is known of his parentage, or his circumstances 
of life ; but it is generally agreed that he was a wandering poer, and that 
he was blind, at least towards the close of his life. His greatest poems 
are the Iliad and Odyssey. The Arundelian marbles fix the period m 
which he flourished at 907, before the Christian era. 

Herodotus, a celebrated historian, was born at Halicarnassus, and 
is styled the father of history. His most celebrated work describes the 
wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from the age of Cyrus to the 
battle of Mycale. His style abounds with elegance, ease, and sweetness. 

Hippocrates, styled the father of medicine, was born in the island 
of Cos. He devoted his whole attention to medical applications ; his 
writings, a few fragments of which remain, procured him the epithet 
of divine. He died at the age of 99 years, A. C. 361. 

Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet, who is supposed to have flourished 
about the time of Homer. His greatest production is a poem on agri- 
culture whbh contains many moral reflections, mingled with instruc- 
tion for cultivating the fields. His Theogony, another poem, gives a 
faithful description of the gods of antiquity. So partial were the Greeks 
fo his moral pro<hicitens, that they required their children to commit 
tliemtomemorv. 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 407 

Hora.ce, the greatest of the Roman lyric poets ; he studie I at Roinn 
and afterwards at Athens. He accompanied Brutus in the civil wars 
and at the battle of Philippi he saved his life by flight. From this 
period he devoted himself to writing verses ; and his talents soon re- 
commended him to the patronage of Augustus. He died in the 57th 
year of his age, A. C. 8. 

Hume, David, an historian of some eminence, was born at Edinburgh, 
in Scotland, in 1711. He was designed by his father for the law, but 
the turn of his mind led him to literary pursuits. His principal works 
are his treatise on Human Nature, his Inquiries concerning the Principles 
of Morals, and his English History. In principle, Hume, like Gibbon, was 
a decided skeptic and unbeliever; hence we find the principles of in- 
fidelity inculcated throughout his writings. His history, though pos- 
sessing considerable merits in perspicuity and purity of style, is far 
from being accurate in many particulars. He died in 1776. 

Hatdx, Joseph, a celebrated composer of music, was born of humble 
parentage in Austria, in 1733. He went to England where he pub- 
lished several of his musical works, in consequence of which the 
degree of doctor of music was conferred on him by the University of 
Oxford. In 1796, he returned to Germany, where he composed his 
sublime oratorios of The Creation, and The Seasons. His other publica- 
tions are various and valuable. He died at the advanced age of 76 ; in 
1809. 

Hexry, Patrick, the great American orator, was born in the colony 
of Virginia in 1736. In the early part of his life, he was passionately 
addicted to pleasure, and averse to toil, even to the labor of study. He 
married at the age of 18, and settled on a farm, but agriculture as well 
as mercantile pursuits, in which he subsequently engaged, proving un- 
successful, he turned his attention towards the law, and after six weeks 
preparatory study, he was admitted to practice. He served his country 
in various posts. In 1765, he was elected a member of the Virginia 
legislature, and introduced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp Act; 
he afterwards bore a distinguished part in the period of the Revolution. 
He died at the age of 61, in 1797. 

Isaiah, the Prophet, was the son of Amos. He prophesied upwards 
of 700 years before the Christian era. He was the greatest a?.d most 
sublime of all the prophets. He boldly censured the vices of his time, 
and according to the Hebrew tradition, he was put to deE.fh by being 
sawed in two, during the reign of king Manasse. 

Jubal is spoken of in the Scripture as " the father of such as handled 
the harp or organ ;" a fact which proves that music mast have been 
one of the earliest arts known and taught among men. 

Joshua, the successor of Moses, led the people of Israel into the pro- 
mised land, and having divided the country among the ten tribes, he 
died in the 110th year of his age. 

Joseph, the patriarch, was one of the twelve sons of Jacob, whose 
eventful life is so pathetically described in the scripture. He was sold 
by his brothers to merchants, who carried him into Egypt, v» here, 
through the interposition of heaven, he finally became the ruler cf that 
country, under Pharaoh. The triumph of his innocence, as the reward 
of his piet} r , proves the care of God manifested towards the virtuous. 
and should .ead them to place their confidence in his protection unlet 
the most trying scenes of life. 

Joiinso>\ Samuel, an eminent lexicographer, critic, aril e'-SRy'st, u r as 



408 BIOGRArHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

born at Iiitchfield, 1709. He commenced his education at Oxford, but 
owing to the insolvency of his father, he was obliged to leave the uni- 
versity prematurely. Involved in poverty, and without any prospect 
before him, after trying various expedients to obtain a livelihood, he 
went to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From this period 
until 1763, he was engaged in literary labors, under the pressure of 
poverty and disappointment. On one occasion he was arrested for a 
debt ol five guineas, from which he was relieved by the kindness of a 
friend. His first important work, was his celebrated English Dictionary, 
which he completed in the space of seven years, and for which he re- 
ceived only the sum of £1575. The Rambler, and The Lives of Poets, are 
among some of his principal productions. He died in 1784, aged 75 
years. 

Jefferson, Thomas. This eminent statesman was born at Shadwell, 
Virginia, in 1743. He was elected a member of the continental Con- 
gress in 1775, and was one of the committee appointed to draw up the 
Declaration of Independence, which document, with a few alterations, was 
his own composition. In 1801, he was elected to the office of President 
of the United States, and after serving to the expiration of his second 
term, he retired from public life to his seat at Monticello, where he died 
on the 4th of July, 1827. In private life, he was hospitable and agree 
able in his manners ; in public, the uncompromising, sagacious, ami 
'alented leader of the democratic party. 

Jackson, General Andrew. This distinguished man was born on the 
16th of M-arch, 1767, in the Wdu haw settlement, South Carolina. His 
parents were emigrants from Ireland, and followed the industrious oc- 
cupation of farming. Andrew, while yet in his infancy, was bereft of 
nis father, and left with two elder brothers, to the care of a devoted 
mother. During the war of the Revolution, Jackson, though young, 
partook largely of the calamities of that eventful period. One of his 
brothers was slain in the battle of Stono; he himself, with the other 
brother, was taken prisoner, and carried to Camden. During his cap- 
tivity, Andrew was ordered, by a British officer, to wipe the mud off his 
boots, which he peremptorily refused to do, demanding the treatment 
due to a prisoner of war. The officer, enraged at this refusal, drew his 
sword and struck at the head of Jackson, who w r a*'ded off the blow with 
his left hand, but received a wound, the mark of which he carried with 
him to his grave. His brother, for a similar offense, received a wound 
upon his head, inflicted by a sword, of which he eventually died. Aftei 
the war, he turned his attention towards the law, and was admitted to 
practice at the age of twenty. In 1788, he located himself permanently 
at Nashville, Tennessee. In 1 796, he was elected one of the members 
of a convention, assembled to frame a constitution for the state. In the 
following year he was sent to Congress, and the year after to the Senate 
of Ihe United States, which situation he shortly resigned, not being 
satisfied with his political duties at Washington. On his return from 
Congress, he was appointed one of the judges of the Supreme Court of 
Tennessee, During the late war he received the appointment of Major 
General in the regular army, and defeated the British on the 8th of 
January, 1815, in the me-morable battle of New Orleans. In 1828, lie 
was elected to the office of President of ihe IJnited States. After the 
expiration of his second term, he retired again to the repose of th? 
Hermitage, where he died on the 8th of June, 1845, in the 78lh year of 
his age. 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 409 

Lucmus, an early Roman poet. He is considered as the first great 
satirical writer among the Romans ; his productions are harsh and in- 
elegant; of his thirty satires, only a few verses remain. He died at 
Napies in the 46th year of his age. 

Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet. He studied at Athens, and im- 
bibed the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem on the nature of things, he 
advocates Atheism, and endeavors to establish the mortality of the soul. 
He is thought to have caused his own death in the 44th year of his age. 
A. C. 54. 

Livt, a distinguished Roman historian, who wrote the history of his 
country in 140 books, of which only 35 are extant. His style is clear 
and spirited ; his descriptions bold and concise. He died at Padua in 
the 67th year of his age, A. D. 17. 

Ltcuiigus, the great Spartan legislator, nourished about the year 884 
before the Christian era. He \vas regent of Sparta during the minority 
of Charilaus, his nephew. After returning from his travels in Asia and 
Egypt, he framed the celebrated code of laws for his country, which 
rendered Sparta for so many ages one of the leading states of Greece. 
Having established bis laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter them 
until his return, he left his country, and by a voluntary death he rendered 
their establishment effectual. 

Locke, John, a celebrated English philosopher, was born in the year 
1632. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situ- 
ation under government, and wrote at that time several political tracts. 
His lordship being compelled to retire from England, on a charge of 
being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion, Locke also removed to Hol- 
land, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, but subsequently 
returned to his native country, and published his Essay on the Human 
Mind. He died in the year 1704. 

I Lutheii, Martin, the celebrated reformer, was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 
1483. He was designed by his parents for a civilian, but the following 
awful incident directed his attention towards the church. As he was 
walking in the fields with a fellow-student, his companion was struck 
by lightning, and killed by his side. His mind was so much affected 
by this event, that he formed the resolution of retiring from the world. 
He accordingly entered into the order of Augustine Friars, at Erfurt. 
From this place he removed to Wittenberg, being appointed professor 
of divinity in the University, founded in that city by the elector of 
Saxony. In 1517, he commenced the Reformation, the particulars of 
which have been given under the head of the Christian Church. In 
1524, he threw aside the monastic habit, and the following year mar- 
ried a nun ; he had three sons, whose descendants are still respected 
in Germany. Luther died at his native place in 1546. 

Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable fcr any thing 
except his age, having completed 969 years, the oldest of the human 
race. 

Mexes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshipped as a 
god after his death. He is supposed to have built the city of Memphis, 
and is said to have reigned 62 years over Upper Egypt, and 35 over 
Lower Egypt. 

Melchisedec. Little is known of this personage. After the return 
of A-brah am from an expedition against some of the neighboring princes, 
who had committed depredations on his territory, Melchisedec met an I 
blessed him. The scrptural account is in the following words: " But 

35 



410 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Melchisedec, the king of Salem, bringing forth bread and wine, for he 
was a priest of the Most High God, blessed him and said: Blessed be 
Abraham by the Most High God, who created heaven and earth ; and 
he (Abraham) gave him tithes of all." 

Moses, the great lawgiver of the Jews. In his infancy he was ex- 
posed on the banks of the Nile, in a small basket made of rushes ; in 
this situation he was found by the daughter of Pharaoh, who saved his 
life, and adopted him as her own child. After having led the Israelites 
from the land of Egypt, and having given them the divine law at the 
foot of Mount Sinai, he died on Mount Nebo, at the age of 120 years, 
after having taken a view of the promised land, A. C. 1447. 

Milton, John, the greatest of the epic poets of modern time, was born 
in London, 1G08. As a political writer, he has been much admired, but 
as a poet he has been justly celebrated as a compeer of Homer and 
Virgil. His Paradise Lost is the greatest poem which modern ages 
have produced. Towards the close of his life he became blind; he 
suffered considerably from personal and political enemies, and finally 
died comparatively poor and forsaken by the world, A. D. 1674. 

Montgomery, General, a distinguished officer in the war of the Revo- 
lution. He fell in an attempt to storm the walls of Quebec. Few men 
have fallen in battle more regretted on both sides, than General Mont- 
gomery. He had engaged in the American cause from the purest prin- 
ciples ; he left the enjoyment of ease and the highest domestic happiness, 
in Ireland, his native land, to share the toils, the dangers, and the fortunes 
of a war, undertaken to defend the rights of a community, of which he 
was only an adopted member. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, one of the most illustrious and greatest philoso 
phers and mathematicians that ever lived, was born at Woolstrope, in 
Lincolnshire, England. Having lost his father at an early period of 
his life, the utmost attention was bestowed on his education by his* 
mother. He studied at Trinity College, and at the age of 22 discovered 
the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. But his 
most important discovery was the principle of gravitation. He was 
led to the investigation of this principle by observing an apple fall from 
a tree; by inquiring the reason, why it fell to the ground after leaving 
the stem, in preference to taking any other direction. He died in the 
85th year of his age, A. D. 1727. 

Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled, is considered 
by some as the Chronos of the Greeks. His eminent piety procured for 
him and his family an exemption from the awful calamity of the deluge. 
Having built the ark according to the Divine direction, he entered it, 
taking with him his wife, his three sons, and their wives, together with 
tne various animals of the earth, and thus under the special care of 
God, survived the destruction of the world. He died 350 years after 
the deluge, at the advanced age of 950 years. 

Nimrod, a great warrior, is the first king we read of in authentic 
history. 

Ninus, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a great part of Asia 
He married the celebrated Semiramis, to whom he left his kingdom after 
a reign of 52 years. 

Orpheus, called the father of poetry, is said to have been the son of 
Apollo. The power of his music was such, as f ction reports, that at 
the strains of his lyre, the rivers were stayed in their course, the moun- 
tains were moved, and the ferocity of wild beas.s subdued. He is said 



BIOGRAPHY 01- EMINENT PERSONAGES. 411 

to have been one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition he 
Wrote a poetical account; this, however, is doubted; and the poems 
that pass under his name, are supposed to have been written by a latei 
author. Orpheus flourished 1284 years before the Christian era. 

Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet, who flourished during the reign 
of Augustus, and under a part of the reign of Tiberius. The most of his 
poems are s'ill extant; they are characterized by sweetness and ele- 
gance, thougn often debased by indelicate expressions. 

Ossian, a Caledonian bard. He is supposed, to have flourished in 
the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. He wrote in 
Gaelic; and poems that go by his name, translated by Macphcrson, are 
marked by a simple and sublime wildness. 

Plutarch, an eminent biographer. His principal works are his 
Lives of Illustrious Men. Having travelled through Egypt and Greece in 
quest of knowledge, he returned to Rome, where he opened a school 
with great reputation. He enjoyed the special favor of the emperor 
Trajan, and after the death of his patron, he retired to his native place 
Chceronea, where he died, A. D. 140. 

Pindar, a Grecian lyric poet, was a native of Thebes. His compo- 
sitions were universally admired, and his hymns were repeated in the 
temples, at the celebration of the festivals ; his odes, which have sur- 
vived the wreck of time, are greatly admired for their grandeur of ex- 
pression, magnificence of style, and harmony of numbers. Pindar died 
at the age of 86, A. C. 435. 

Phidias, a Grecian, the most famous sculptor of antiquity, was born 
at Athens. His statue of Jupiter Olympius passed for one of the wonders 
of the world. That of Minerva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 
39 feet in height, and was made of gold and ivory. He died A. C. 432. 

Polybius, a learned historian, who wrote the history of the Greeks 
and Romans. He fought against the Romans in the war of Perseus, and 
being made prisoner he was brought to Rome, where he was befriended 
by the younger Scipio. He was present at the siege of Carthage, and 
after the destruction of that city, he retired to Megalopolis, where he 
died in his 82d year, A. C. 124. 

Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, was born at Samos. He travelled 
through Egypt and other countries, and finally settled at Crotona, where 
his universal knowledge gained him many friends and admirers. The 
world is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th proposition 
of Euclid, respecting the square of hypothenuse. The time and placo 
of his death are unknown. 

Pt ato, an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the Divine, was for 
eight years the pupil of Socrates. He taught in the grove of Academus, 
near Athens, where he was attended by a crowd of noble and illustrious 
pupils. His works are numerous, and generally in the form of dia- 
logues. The ancients, and even the learned of modern times, have 
admired and studied the writings of this great philosopher. They dis- 
play great depth of thought, with elegance and harmony of expression. 
Among other truths, he maintains, by many powerful arguments, the 
immortality of the soul. He died in the 81st year of his age, A. C. 348. 

Pliny, the elder, wis born at Verona, of a nobie family; he is the 
earliest writer on natural history, whose works are extant. To his 
public duties he attended through the day, but devoted himself to study 
during a portion of the night. His work on Natural History was com 
prised in 37 books. He is said to have written 160 volumes of remarks 



412 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

and annotations on various authors, but these have not survived the 
wreck of time. His iove of knowledge cost him his life. During an 
eruption of Vesuvius, he was induced to approach '.he mountain, foi 
the purpose of making his observations on this interesting phenomenon 
While thus employed, he was overtaken by the burning lava and per- 
ished, A. D. 79. 

Pope, Alexander, an eminent English poet, was born in Loncon in 
1688. At the age of twenty, he published his Essay on Criticism, a pro- 
duction which evinces all the reflections of a more mature age. The 
Temple of Fame, Rape of the Lock, the Dunciad, and Essay on Man, are 
among his most celebrated productions. His translation of Homer's 
Iliad is still read and universally admired. In person, Pope was dimi- 
nutive and somewhat crooked. In disposition he was fretful, but his 
manners were easy, and his wit fascinating. He died in his native 
city, at the age of fifty-six years. 

Pitt, William, a distinguished statesman and orator, was earl of 
Chatham, and born in the year 1708. — Being elected to Parliament at 
the age of twenty-seven, he was soon distinguished for his eloquence, 
and early enlisted in the ranks of the opposition. In 1756, he was ap- 
pointed Secretary of State, but his continuance in office was of shorl 
duration. His popularity, however, was with the mass of the nation, 
and he was recalled to the Secretaryship in 1757. He deprecated, with 
all the power of his eloquence, measures relating to the American war, 
in the House of Lords. His constitution was at this time so enfeebled 
that on one occasion, as he rose to speak, he fell into a swoon, and died 
m a few days, in the seventieth year of his age. As an orator and 
statesman, he is perhaps unrivalled in modern times ; the music and 
majesty of his voice, the gracefulness of his action, the power of his 
eye, carried conviction with his arguments. It is said that Walpole, 
the minister, though supported by a decided majority, never heard his 
voice in the House of Commons without being alarmed. 

Quintiliax, an eminent rhetorician, was a native of Spain. After 
twenty years employed in teaching rhetoric, and pleading at the bar at 
Rome", he retired from public life, and devoted himself to composi- 
tion. His institutions, in twelve books, form the most perfect system 
of oratory extant. He died A. D. 95. 

Romulus, the founder, and the first king of Rome, was the son of 
Rhea Sylvia, and born at the same birth with Remus. He was distin 
guished as a legislator, though his institutions were almost exclusively 
of a warlike tendency. We are fabulously told, that he was taken up 
to heaven whilst reviewing his army, although it is generally believed 
that he was killed by the senators. The Romans paid divine honors 
to him under the name of Quirinus. 

Raphael, an eminent painter, was born a Urbino, in 1483. By stu 
dying the best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and 
merited the appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an archi- 
tect, and was employed in the building of St. Peter's at Rome. By the 
general consent of mankind, he was acknowledged as the greatest of 
painters ; he excelled particularly in beauty and grace. He died at the 
age of thirty-seven ; his death is said to have been hastened by intern 
perate habits. 

Rousseau, John James, was born at Geneva in 1712. He was of a 
weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, and the early 
reading of Plutarch and Tacitus tended to expand his ideas, and to in- 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 413 

spire him with courage, The ugh equally skeptical with Hume and 
Voltaire, yel he quarrelled with the former, who had been his proteccoi 
in England, and incurred the displeasure of the latter, for maintaining 
the immoral tendency of the stage, although he himself had written fci 
it. He dieu at his native place, Geneva, in the sixty-sixth year of his 
age. His works prove him to have been a man of transcendent genius, 
but at the same time exhibit the utmost eccentricity, joined with licen- 
tiousness ana skepticism. He has been called the Diogenes of modern 
times. 

Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, the cotemporary and 
rival of Euripides, was born about 497, A. 0. Towards the close 
of his life, being accused of insanity by his children, who wished to 
obtain his possessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of 
(E dip us, and then asked his judges whether the author of such a 
performance could be insane ; he was immediately acquitted, to the 
confusion of his ungrateful offspring. He died in his ninety-first year, 
of excessive joy, on hearing that he had obtained a poetical prize 
at the Ol3'mpic games. 

Socrates was a native of Athens. In early life he followed the pro 
fession of his father, who was a statuary; he also for some time fol- 
lowed the profession of a soldier. But he is far more distinguished as 
a philosopher and moralist, than as a warrior. He was remarkable for 
the mildness of his disposition, and acquired that serenity of mind, and 
firmness of countenance, which the most alarming dangers could not 
destroy, nor the most sudden calamities alter. He inculcated the purest 
principles of morality, and supported the doctrine of the immortality of 
the soul. Being accused by his enemies on a false charge of corrupt- 
ing the youth of Athens, he was condemned to death ; accordingly, he 
drank the juice of the hemlock, and calmly expired in the seventieth 
year of his age, A. C. 401. 

Solox, the great Athenian legislator, and one of the wise men of 
Greece, was born at Salamis, and educated at Athens. Having been 
elected archon, he reformed every department of the government. He 
instituted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws con- 
tinued to flourish for near four hundred years. He died in the eigh- 
tieth year of his age, A. C. 558. 

Sappho, a celebrated Greek poetess, and inventor of the Sapphic 
»rerse,was born in the island of Lesbos, about six hundred years before 
the Christian era. She was celebrated for her poetical talents and 
beauty. Her poems were much admired for their sublimity, harmony, 
sweetness, and elegance ; but of all her productions only a few frag- 
ments are now extant. 

Solomox, the wisest of mankind, was the son of David, king of 
Israel. The early part of his life was distinguished for exemplary 
piety, but he afterwards fell even into idolatry. He married m less 
than one thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the title of 
queens. It is believed that he repented before his death. The temple 
which he built at Jerusalem rendered his name memorable. He wrote 
the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastcs, and Canticles. He died in the fifty 
eighth year of his age, and fortieth of his reign, A C. 975. 

Semiramis, a female conqueror, celebrated for htr beauty, and heroic 
mind. In her infancy, she is said to have been exposed in the desert, 
but her life was preserved a whole year by doves. After the death of 
her husband, Ninus. the Assvrian monarch, she assumed the reins of 

35* 



414 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

government, and immortalized her name by enlarging and embellishing 
the city of Babylon. She also extended her dominions by the conquest 
of a part of Ethiopia; but her greatest and last expedition was directed 
against India. Having advanced to the banks of the Indus, she crossed 
the river with her army, after a sanguinary contest, on a bridge of 
boats, but was finally defeated, and fled with precipitation to her own 
dominions. Having discovered that her son had entered into a con- 
spiracy against her, she abdicated the throne in his favor, and died 
after a reign of forty-two years. 

Samson, one of the Judges of Israel, was endowed with extraordi- 
nary strength. On one occasion he slew one thousand Philistines with 
the jaw bone of an ass. The secret of his strength, which lay in his 
hair, was at length discovered by his wife Delilah, who treacherously 
cut oft" his hair while he was asleep, and thus rendered him powerless. 
In this slate he was taken by his enemies, who deprived him of his 
sight, and retained him a prisoner. In the mean time his hair increased 
and with it his strength also returned. On a certain occasion, as the 
Philistines were holding a festival in the temple of Dagon, Samson 
was brought in for their amusement; but by an effort of his strength, 
he pulled down the pillars supporting the edifice, and perished with 
three thousand of his enemies in the general ruin. 

Sthabo, a celebrated geographer and historian, was a native of 
Amasia, and died A. D. 25. His geographical work, in seventeen books, 
is the only one now remaining. It is written in Greek, and is justly 
considered an elegant and classical production. 

Skxeca, Lucius, a celebrated moralist and philosopher, was born at 
Cordova, in Spain. He became early distinguished for his abilities, 
and acquired considerable eminence for his eloquence in pleading at 
the bar. He was intrusted with the education of Nero, and while the 
young emperor was guided by the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, 
he governed with universal approbation. But at length becoming im- 
patient of the restraint imposed on his vicious inclinations, he pre- 
tended that Seneca had conspired with Piso against his life, and sent 
a messenger to inform him that he must die; permitting him at the 
same time to choose the manner of his death. The philosopher received 
the mandate with cheerfulness, and ordered the veins of his legs and 
arms to be opened ; but as the blood flowed extremely slow, his life was 
at length terminated by warm vapor, in the seventy-second year of his 
age, A. D. 65. 

Sailust, a Roman historian. He was a man of depraved and licen- 
tious manners. Of his Roman history, the conspiracy of Catiline and 
the wars of Jugurtha are the only portions extant. He died in the 
fifty-first year of his age, A. C. 35. 

Sheridan, Richard Brinslcy. This celebrated wit, statesman, and 
orator, was born in the city of Dublin, in 1751. At an early age, he 
married Miss Linley, a beautiful young lady; but he did not obtain her 
without some difficulty, being obliged to fight two duels, with a Captain 
Matthews, on her account. On the conclusion of Mr. Sheridan's speech 
on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, the whole assembly, members, 
peers, and strangers, in Westminster Hall, joined in a tumultuous burst 
of applause. A motion was immediately made to adjourn, m order that 
the members might recover from the effect of his overpowering elo- 
quence. Sheridan undermined his constitution by intemperance, and 
died in needy circumstances. 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 415 

Spftvseh, Edmund, an eminent English poet, flourished during the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was employed for some time in 
public life. His most celebrated production is his Vairij Queen. He, 
died at London, in 1598. 

Shakespeare, William, the greatest of the dramatic poets, was born 
in England, in the year 1564. He came to London at an early ag*, and 
first enlisted among the players and became an actor on the stage. He, 
however, shortly afterwards applied himself to dramatical writing, and 
soon gained a universal reputation. Towards the close of his life, he 
retired to his native place, where he died in the 53d year of his age, 
A. D. 1617. As a writer of plays, he has never been surpassed; he is 
admired for the beautv, elegance, and simplicity of his style. His writ- 
ings, however, are irequently interspersed with blemishes and moral 
defects. 

Swift, Jonathan, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer, was 
born in Ireland in 1667. About the year 1694, he took orders as a 
minister in the church of England, and as dean of St. Patrick's in Dub- 
lin. After the accession of Queen Anne, he became deeply engaged in 
political controversy, and wrote some able political works. He died in 
1745. Among other works, he was the author of Gulliver's Travels and 
Tale of a Tub. Swift was eccentric in the extreme ; he delighted to 
differ from all other men, on those subjects in which all others agreed. 
Though married, he was never known to be in the company of his wife 
except in the presence of a third person. Whether he really believed 
in the truth of Christianity, is a subject of doubt. 

Tiiales was born at Miletus in Ionia. He was distinguished for his 
high attainments in philosophy, geometry, and astronomy. He was the 
first who calculated the solar eclipse, and the founder of the Ionic sect 
of philosophy. He died at the age of 96 years, A. C. 548. 

Theocritus, a pastoral poet, who flourished at Syracuse, A. C. 282. 
A few fragments of his poetical compositions, written in the Doric 
dialect, are yet extant, and admired for their beauty, elegance, and sim- 
plicity. He is said to have written several invectives against Hicro, 
king of Syracuse, by whose order he was put to death. 

Viiigil, an illustrious Roman poet, was born in a village near Mantua, 
about 70 years before the Christian era. Having lost his farm in the 
distribution of the lands to the soldiers of Augustus, he repaired to Rome 
and procured the restoration of his property through the influence of 
Mecrenas. His most celebrated writings are his Bucolics, Geo'gics, and 
the JEneid. He enjoyed the particular friendship and patronage of Au- 
gustus. He died at Brundusium in the 51st year of his age, A. C. 19. 

Varro, a learned Roman, who is said to have written no less than 
300 volumes; all of which are lost, except two fragments. He died at 
the age of 88 years, A. C. 28. 

Voltaire, Marie Francis, an eminent French poet and writer, was 
born in the year 1694. In early life he evinced superior powers of 
mind; his fondness for satire, directed against the government, caused 
his imprisonment in the Bastile, from which he was at length liberated 
through the influence of the Duke of Orleans. After this event, he de- 
voted himself more to the composition of poetry. His principal efforts 
were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope, 
place him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. He spent much 
of his time at the court of Frederick II., king of Prussia; but at length 
fixed his residence in a village on the borders of France. The boldness 



416 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

and extravagance of his writings often exposed him to danger, and com* 
pplled him at different times to retire from it. He Med while on a visit 
to Paris, in the 84th year of his age. His last moments are said to 
have been attended with the utmost horror, and dread at the reflection 
of the irreligious and atheistical tendency of his writings, which have 
been regarded as one of the agents in bringing about the awful calami- 
ties that befell France. 

Washington, George. This illustrious general, patriot, and states- 
man, was born in the year 173?., in the county of Fairfax, Virginia. 
He was educated under the care of a private tutor, and distinguished 
himself for his progress in mathematics and engineering. The prin- 
cipal events of his life have been already noticed. After the struggle, 
which procured the Independence of America, he resigned his military 
command and again retired to the tranquillity of private life. In 1789, 
he was called by the unanimous voice of his countrymen to fill the high 
office of President of the United Stales. Having filled that station a 
second term, or eight years, he declined the honor of being again re- 
elected, and returned to his peaceful residence of Mount Vernon, where 
he died after a few days' illness, on the 14th of December, 1799, in the 
68th year of his age. The history of his country is the best eulogium 
of this great man; his most lasting monument, the love and admiration 
of the world. Washington never had any offspring. In his 27lh year, 
he married Mrs. Custis ; a lady possessed of every accomplishment that 
contributes to domestic felicity. At his death, he directed all his ser- 
vants shoald be emancipated after Mrs. Washington's decease. 

Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philosopher of Greece 
He served in the army of Cyrus, the Younger, and chiefly conducted the 
retreat of the Ten Thousand after the battle of Cunaxa. After this event, 
he continued the history of Thucydides, wrote the life of Cyrus, the Great, 
and collected the Memorabilia of Socrates. He died at Corinth in the 
90th year of his age, A. C. 350. 

Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, was a native of 
Cyprus. The early part of his life was devoted to, commercial pursuits ; 
but he at length turned his attention towards the study of philosophy, 
which he afterwards taught at Athens for 48 years, and died at the age 
of 98, A. U. *64. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF 

REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVENTIONS, FROM TUB 
CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE YEAR 1840 



B. C. 

4004 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew tex*. of tho 

Scriptures. 
3875 Cain murders Abel. 
3017 Enoch translated to Heaven 
2348 Universal Deluge. 

2247 The Building of Babel ; the Dispersion of Mankind ; and the Con- 
fusion of Languages. 
2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Baby- 
lonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built Nineveh, and foun4ed 
the Monarchy of Assyria. 
2188 Menres (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy of Egypt 
1996 The Birth of Abram. 

1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 
1896 Isaac born. 
1836 Jacob and Esau born. 
1823 Death of Abraham. 
1716 Isaac dies. 
1635 Joseph dies in Egypt. 
1571 Moses born in Egypt. 
1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 
1546 Scamander founds the kingdom of Troy. 
1520 Corinth built. 

1493 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece. 
1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 
1452 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written. 
1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua. 
1434 Joshua dies. 
1207 Gideon, Judge of Israel. 
1193 The Trojan War begins. 
1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 
1155 Samson born. 
1099 Samuel delivers Israel. 
1079 Saul, King of Israel 
1055 David, King of Israel, begins his reign. 
1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 

980 Rehoboam and Jeroboam begin to reign over Israel. 

955 Abijah, king of Judah, dies, and Asa succeeds him. 

914 Jehoshaphat succeeds his father Asa — Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jene- 
ram, reign over Israel. 

869 The City of Carthage built by Dido. 

762 The foundation of Rome, by Romulus. 



418 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

724 Hezekiah, tenth king of Judah. 

721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into cap 
tivity, which puts an end to the Israelitish kingdom. 

711 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judea. 

708 Habakkuk prophesied. 

698 Manasseh, sixteenth king of Judah. 

658 Byzantium founded by Pausanias, king of Sparta. 

627 The Forty Years of Hezekiah began. 

610 Josiah slain. 

606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the Jews into cap 
tivity. 

601 End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnezzar 

600 Jeremiah prophesied. 

599 Birth of Cyrus the Great. 

588 The Jewish Capital and Temple are burned to the ground. 

572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 

551 Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, born. 

538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 

536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jew- 
ish Captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 

534 Daniel prophesied. 

529 Death of Cyrus the Great. 

520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in 
four years. 

508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 

504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 

490 The Battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades defeats the Persians 

488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. 

486 Xerxes succeeds his father, Darius, in the kingdom of Persia. 

485 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 

480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at Thermopylae. 

Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians, at Salamis 

476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens. 

A great Eruption at ^Etna. 

456 Cincinnatus, Dictator <X Rome. 

455 Commencement of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks of Daniel. 
452 The two books of Chronicles, supposed to have been written at 

this time by Ezra. 
431 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven years. 
— — Malachi, the last of the Prophets. 
422 Sanballat builds a Temple on Mount Gerizzim for Eleazar, his 

son-in-law. 
418 Disturbances at Rome on account of the Agiariaii Law. 
409 Nehemiah dies. 
404 Malachi prophesies. 

403 Lysander takes Athens. Government of the Thirty Tyrants. 
401 The younger Cyrus defeated by his brother Anaxerxes, and 

killed. 

- Persecution and death of Socrates. 

385 Rome taken by the Gauls, under Brennus. 

356 Alexander the Great born at Pella, in Mac^dojua 

348 End of the Sacred War. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 419 

B.C. 

343 The War between the Romans and Samnites, which led to the 

Conquest of all Italy. 
336 Philip murdered by Pausamas. 

Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 

S32 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre. 

330 Darius Codomanus killed. End of the Persian Empire 

328 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds several cities, 

and penetrates to the Ganges. 

— The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. 
324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thirty-three 
320 Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt. 

285 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 

283 The Library of Alexandria founded. 

280 Pyrrhus invades Italy. 

277 The translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptolemy Phil- 

adelphus. 
266 Silver money is coined at Rome for the first time. 
253 Manasseh chosen high priest of the Jews. 
241 End of the first Punic War. 
235 The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the reign of 

Numa. 
225 Great victory of the Romans over the Gauls. 
219 Hannibal takes Saguntum. 
218 The second Punic War begins. 
206 Gold first coined at Rome. 
203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. 
196 The battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 
170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 
167 End of the kingdom of Macedon. 
166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. 
149 The third Punic War begins. 
146 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. 
— - Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 
103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome. 

9* The War of the Allies against the Romans. 

82 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible proscriplior 

80 Julius Caesar makes his first campaign. 

79 Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 

72 Herod the Great is born. 

63 Victories of Pompey. He takes Jerusalem, and restores Hvt 
canus to the government of Judea. 

02 Catiline's conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero. 

61 Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 

59 The first Triumvirate, Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. 

55 Caesar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 

54 Caesar invades Britain a second time, and conquers part ct iu 

49 Ccesar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome. 

48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. 

— The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt. 

46 The Calendar reformed by Julius Caesar, by introducing the Solal 
Year instead of the Lunar. The first Julian Year began Janu- 
ary 1, 45 A. C. 



420 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

fi. c. 

44 Julius Caesar assassinated in the Senate-House, having killed 

1,192,000 men. 
33 Mauritania reduced to a Roman Province. 

32 War declared by the Senate against Antony and Cleopatra. 
31 Battle of Actium, and end of the Roman commonwealth. 

— Octavius, emperor of Rome. 

19 Temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod. 

10 The temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time. 

8 Augustus corrects an error of the Roman Calendar. 

5 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Roman empire. 
4 JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the commencement of 
the vulgar era. 

A. D. 

9 The Roman Legions under Varus, destroyed in Germany. 
14 Tiberius emperor of Rome. 

17 Twelve cities of Asia destroyed by an earthquake. 

26 John the Baptist preaches in Judea the coming of the Messiah. 

29 Jesus baptized in Jordan by John. 

33 JESUS CHRIST crucified. 

— The conversion of St. Paul. 
37 Caligula emperor of Rome. 

39 St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 

40 The name of Christians first given to the Disciples of Christ at 

Antioch. 

41 Claudius, emperor of Rome. 

- Herod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter. 

42 Sergius Paulus, pro-consul, converted by St. Paul. 
44 St. Mark writes his Gospel. 

• Herod is smitten by an angel, and dies. 
50 London is founded by the Romans. 

St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. 
55 St. Luke writes his Gospel. 
64 The first persecution of the Christians raised by Nero. 

— Rome set on fire by Nero. 

67 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at Csesarea Ptolemais ana 

Alexandria. 
• St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 

— Josephus, the Jewish historian, Governor of Galilee. 
70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 

78 A great pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 

79 Titus, emperor of Rome. 

— Heraculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. 
93 The Evangelist John banished to Patmos. 

95 Dreadful persecution of the Christians at Rome, and in the 
provinces. 

— St. John writes his Apocalypse, and his Gospel. 
98 Trajan forbids the Christian assemblies. 

108 St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts at Rome. 

115 The Jews in Cyrer.e murder 200,000 Greeks and Romans. 

118 Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but afterwards 

suspended. 
120 Adrian's wall built across Britain. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 421 

&.D. 

135 The Romans destroy 580,000 Jews in Judea. 

137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of ^Elia Capitolina. 

154 Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Christians. 

168 A plague over the known world. 

177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 

189 The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first mentioned n 

history. 
191 A great part of Rome destroyed by fire. 
195 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 
202 The fifth persecution against the Christians, principally in Egypi 
217 Macrinus, emperor of Rome. 
222 The Roman empire begins to decline. 
225 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 
236 The sixth persecution of the Christians. 
248 The secular games celebrated at Rome. 
250 The seventh persecution of the Christians under Decius. 
257 The eighth persecution of the Christians. 

259 The Persians ravage Syria. 

260 The temple of Diana at Ephesus, burnt. 
267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 
274 Silk first brought from India. 

276 Wines first made in Britain. 

295 Alexandria, in Egypt, taken by Diocletian. 

302 The tenth persecution of the Christians. 

?06 Constantine the Great, emperor of Rome. He stops the persecu 

tion of the Christians. 
315 Crucifixion abolished. 
321 Observation of Sunday enjoined. 
325 The first general council at Nice, where the doctrines of Arms 

were condemned. 
330 Constantine removes the seat of empire to Constantinople. 
337 Death of Constantine. The empire divided among his three sons. 

Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius, Emperors of Rome. 

341 The Gospel propagated in Ethiopia by Foumentius. 

361 Julian, Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elected 

Pontifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild the Tern 

pie of Jerusalem. 
367 Gratian, Emperor of ihe West. 
378 The Goths advance to the gates of Constantinople. 
370 Theodosius, the Great, Emperor of the East. 
381 Second general council held at Constantinople. 
383 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the Goths 
410 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. Death of Alaric. 
426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britaii.. 

431 The third general council held at Ephesus. 

432 Gospel preached in Ireland. 

439 Genseric the Vandal, invades and plunders Italy. 
— Carthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals in 
Africa. 
445 The Britons in^vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the 

Picts and Scots. 
451 The Saxons arrive in Britain, under Hengist ana Horsa. 
457 Fourth general council at Chalcedon. 

36 



422 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

452 Foundation of the city of Venice. 

472 Great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from Constantinople. 
481 The kingdom of France begins. 

490 Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its schools. 
493 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric. 
497 Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. 
508 Theodoric, the Great, defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and 
then makes peace with him. 

510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks. 

511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons. 
516 The computation of time by the Christian era inUoduced by Dio- 

nysius the Monk. 
519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the Eu- 

tychians. 
529 The books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. 
532 Great Insurrection at Constantinople quelled with prodigious 

slaughter. 
543 An earthquake all over the world. 
551 The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 
553 Fifth general council at Constantinople. 
571 Birth of Mahomet, the false prophet. 

580 The Latin tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this time. 

581 The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 

609 The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians. 
616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 
622 Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 
632 Death of Mahomet. 

636 Jerusalem taken by Omai and the Saracens, who keep possession 
of it 463 years. 

640 The library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is 

burnt by the Saracens. 

641 Constantine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poisoned by 

his step-mother. 
643 The temple of Jerusalem converted into a Mahometan mosque. 
653 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. 
608 The Saracens obtain peace of the Emperor Constans, and agree 

to pay a yearly tribute. 
660 Organs first used in churches. 
680 The sixth general council of Constantinople. 
685 The Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat into Wales 

and Cornwall. 
713 Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muce, the general of the 

Caliph Walid. 
737 Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian monarchy in 

Asturia. 
748 Trie computing of years from the birth of Christ began to be used 

in history. 
755 Temporal dominion of the Pope. 
« 762 Almanzar builds Bagdad, and makes it the seat of the Empire of 

the Caliphs. 
767 The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 
772 Charlemagne, sole monarch of France. 
779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 423 

A. D. 

787 The Danes first land in England. 

— — The seventh general council, or second of Nice. 

789 Irene puts to death her son, Constantine, and is proclaimed sol* 

Empress. 
800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Rome. 
816 The Eastern Empire ravaged by earthquakes, famine, conflagTa 

tions, &c. 
827 Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. 

Beginning of the kingdom of England. 

845 The Normans plunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into Germany 
848 The Venetian fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 
867 The Danes ravage England. 

886 The University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 

887 The Normans besiege Paris. 

890 Alfred, the Great, composes his code of laws, and divides England 

into counties, hundreds, and timings. 

891 The first land-tax in England. 

915 The University of Cambridge founded by Edward, the Elder. 

941 Arithmetic brought into Europe. 

967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephoras. 

991 The Arabic numeral ciphers first introduced into Europe 
1000 Paper made of cotton rags, in use. 
1013 The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England. 
1025 Musical characters invented by Guido Aretino. 
1040 Macbeth usurps the throne of Scotland by the murder of Duncan 
1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overrun the Empire of the Caliphs. 

1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 

1066 William (the Conqueror) king of England. 
1070 The Feudal Law introduced into England. 

1079 Doomsday-book begun by William, the Conqueror. 

1080 Tower of London built. 

1087 William II. (Rufus) king of England 

1095 The first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter, the Hermit. 

1098 The Crusaders take Antioch. 

1099 Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Boulogne. The Knights of St 

John instituted. 

1100 Henry I. (Beauclerc) king of England. 

1 110 Writing on paper made of cotton rags common about this time. 

1135 Stephen, king of England. 

1141 Stephen, king of England, taken prisoner in the battle of Lincoln 

by the troops of Matilda. 
1143 He recovers his kingdom. 
WA" 7 The second Crusade preached by St. Bernard. 

1150 The study of the civil law revived at Bologna. 

1151 The Canon Law is collected by Gratian, a monk of Bologna. 
J 156 Moscow in Russia founded. 

1157 The Bank of Venice instituted. 

1163 London Bridge built the first time of stone. 

1170 Paper made of linen rags. 

1172 Conquest of Ireland, by Henry II. 

1187 The city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 

1188 Third Crusade. 
1 190 Teutonic Order. 



424 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. d. 

1196 Fourth Crusade sets out from Venice. 

200 Fifth Crusade. 
'204 Latin Empire at Constantinople. 

.208 London incorporated, obtains a charter for electing a Mayor ana 
Magistrate 

215 Magna Charia signed by king John. 

217 Sixth Crusade. 

233 Houses in London, and other cities of England, France, and Ger 
many, still thatched with straw. 

248 Seventh Crusade. 
1 258 Bagdad taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of the Saracens 

261 Fall of the Latin Empirt of Constantinople. 

270 Eighth and last Crusade. 

270 Death of St. Louis. 

282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were massacred. 

283 The conquest of Wales, by Edward I. 
2'JO University of Lisbon founded. 

291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. 

.293 From this year there is a regular succession of English Parlia- 
ments. 

294 Parliaments established in Paris. 

299 Interregnum in Scotland for eight years. Sir William Wallace 
nobly supports the liberty of his country, defeats the English at 
Stirling, and drives them out of the kingdom. 

302 The Mariner's Compass said to be discovered at Naples. 

304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to death by Edward 1. 

307 The establishment of the Swiss Republics. 

Coal first used in England. 

<308 The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy years. 
: 314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edward 
II., at Bannockburn. 

319 The University of Dublin founded. 

320 Gold first coined in Christendom. 

i 340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne. 

Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. 

Copper Money first used in Scotland and Ireland. 

346 Battle of Cressy, won by Edward III. and the Black Prince, over 
the French. 

350 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III. 

351 Coals first brought to London. 

352 The Turks first enter Europe. 

I 356 The battle of Poictiers, in which John II., king of France, is taken 
prisoner, and afterwards brought to London. 

3G2 Law pleadings in England changed from French to English. 
I 365 Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded. 

381 Peace between Venice and Genoa. 

381 Bills of exchange first used in England. 

383 Cannon first used by the English in the defence of Calais. 

391 Cards invented in France for the king's amusement. 

392 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese. 
394 The Jews banished from France by Charles VI. 

.405 The Canary Islands discovered. 
112 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 425 

A. D 

1412 The University of St. Andrews, in Scotland, founded. 

1415 John Huss condemned by the Council of Constance for hercs 

and burnt. 
1420 The Islani of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 
1425 The court of sessions in Scotland, instituted by James I. 
1428 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the English to rau> 

the siege of that town. 
1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English. 

1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin churches. 

1440 Invention of the art of priming, by John Guttenberg, at Strasbur 
1446 Great inundation of the sea in Holland. 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. 

End of the English government in France. 

1459 The art of engraving on copper invented. 

1460 Battle of Wakefield,"in which the Duke of York is killed. 
1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 

1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and Casth 

1489 Maps and sea charts first brought to England. 

1492 America discovered by Christopher Columbus. 

1497 The Portuguese, under Vasco de Gama, double the Cape of Go* 

Hope, and sail to the East Indies. 
1497 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. 
150u Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. 
1507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese. 
1514 Cannon bullets of stone still in use. 
1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. 

1521 Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. 

1522 The first voyage round the world performed by a ship of Mag ' 

lan's squadron. 
1534 The Reformation in England. 
1539 The first English edition of the Bible authorized; the pres< 

translation finished 1611. 
— — About this time cannon began to be used in ships. 
1539 Six hundred and forty-five religious houses suppressed in Engla 

and Wales. 
1543 Pins first used in England, before which time the ladies us 

skewers. 
1545 The council of Trent, the last of the General Councils, opens a I 

continues, with various interruptions, for eighteen years. 

1552 The book of common prayer established in England by act 

Parliament. 

1553 Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 

1560 Beginning of the civil wars in France. 

The Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 

1561 Mary queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France 
1563 Knives first used in England. 

1568 Mai/ queen of Scots flees to England for protection. 

1569 The earl of Murray, regent of Scotland, assassinated by Hamilt 
1572 The massacre of St. Bartholomew, xYugust 24. 

1574 Socinus propagates his opinions. 
— Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, invades Africa. 
1576 The League in France formed against the Protestants. 
1679 Commencement of the republic of Holland, by the union of Utrc< 

36* 



426 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. >>. 

15*C The wcrld circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. 

1582 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the 

T/h of October being counted the 15th. 
1584 Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1588 Manufacture of paper introduced into England. 

1589 Coaches first introduced into England. 

1591 University of Dublin erected 

1592 Presbyterian church government established in Scotland. 
1594 The Bank of England incorporated. 

i597 Watches first brought into England from Germany. 
1G00 The English East India Company established. 
1002 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 
(005 The Gunpowder Plot discovered. 

1007 Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. 

1008 Galileo discovers the satellites of Jupiter. 

Arminius propagates his opinions. 

Quebec founded. 

1010 Hudson's Bay discovered. 

1014 Logarithms invented by Napier. 

New York settled. 

1019 Discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey. 

1020 The broad silk manufacture from raw silk, introduced into Eng« 

land. 

Copper money first introduced into England. 

Settlement of Plymouth, Massachusetts. 

1023 New Hampshire settled. 

IG24 New-Jersey settled. 

1025 The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the West 

Indies. 
1027 Delaware settled. 

1033 Connecticut settled. 

1034 Maryland settled. 
1030 Rhode-Island settled. 

1039 The first printing-press established in the American colonics. 

1042 Beginning of the civil war in England. 

1843 Archbishop Laud condemned by the commons, and beheaded. 

1049 Commonwealth of England begins. 

1050 North and South Carolina settled. 

1051 The Quakers first appear in England. 

1052 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope established. 

The first war between the English and Dutch. 

1054 End of the commonwealth of England. 

The English, under Admiral Penn, take possession cf Jamaica. 

1000 Charles II., king of Great Britain. 

1002 The Royal Society instituted in England. 

1GG3 Chr.rter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. 

The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 

1005 Great plague in London. 

10GG Tea first used in England. 

Great fire in London, 

The Academy of Sciences instituted in France 

1 78 The habeas corpus act passed in England 
1681 Pennsylvania settled. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 427 

A. t» 

1685 Duke of Monmouth beheaded. 

1G86 The Newtonian philosophy first published in England. 

Ib88 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates the throne, Decern 

ber 23. 
1689 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland Dy king William. 
1700 Yale College (Conn.) founded. 

1702 The English and Dutch destroy the French fleet at Vigo. 

The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 

1703 Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. 

1704 Peter tb*» Great founds St. Petersburg. 

First newspaper published in America at Boston. 

1706 Union between England and Scotland. 

1726 Great earthquake at Palermo, August 21. 

J 727 Inoculation first tried on criminals with success, 

1732 Washington born, Feb. 22. 

1733 Georgia settled. 

1744 Commodore Anson completes his voyage round the world. 

1745 Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, June C 

The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. 

1750 Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. 

1752 New Style introduced into Britain, September 3 reckoned 14. 

1754 Great eruption at ^Etna. 

Great earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, September 2. 

1755 Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1. 

1755 Defeat of Braddock. 

1756 War declared between Great Britain and France, May 18. 

1759 General Wolfe takes Quebec, in Canada, Sept. 17. 

1760 Montreal and Canada taken by the British. 

1762 American Philosophical Society established at Philadelphia. 
1765 Stamp Act passed. 

1775 Battle of Lexington, April 19. 

Battle of Bunker's Hill in North America, June 17. 

1776 The Americans declare their independence, July 4. 

Battle of Long-Island, August 27. 

New-York taken, in September. 

Battle of Trenton, Dec. 25. 

1777 Battle of Brandywine, Sept. 11. 

Philadelphia taken, Sept. 26. 

Surrender of the British army under Burgoyne, at Saratoga, intl 

state of New- York, Oct. 17. 

1780 Treachery of Arnold, Sept. 22. 

1781 Battle of Cowpens, January. 

Battle of Guilford, March 15. 

Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8. 

Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, to the America 

and French at Yorktown in Virginia, Oct. 19. 

1782 Articles of peace, between Great Britain and the United Stat' 

signed at Paris, Nov. 30. 

First English Bible printed in America at Philadelphia. 

1788 Constitution of the United States adopted. 

1789 George Washington, first President cf the United States, April. 
?791 Vermont became a state. 

First Sunday School in theUnited States commenced at Philadelph 



428 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1791 Methrdist Missionary Society instituted in England. 

1792 Kentucky became a state. 

Baptist Missionary Society formed in England. 

1793 Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette beheaded. 

1795 The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, Sept. 16. 

1797 John Adams, President of the United States, March 4. 

1798 Ireland in open rebellion, May, June, &c. 

Admiral Nelson destroys the French fleet in the battle of the Nile 

August 1. 

1799 George Washington dies, Dec. 14. 
London Religious Tract Society. 

1800 Union of Britain and Ireland. 

1801 First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and Ireland 

January. 

Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, March 4 

1804 British and Foreign Bible Society. 

1805 Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain off 

Cape Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the .ine, and is 
killed in the battle, Oct. 21. 

War between England and Spain. 

1806 The British Parliament vote the abolition of the slave trade, June 10. 
1808 Abolition of the slave trade in the United States of America, Jan. 1 
1810 American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions formed 

incorporated in 1812. 

1810 Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 

1811 Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods burnt in 

Newburyport, Mass. 
*■• — An unusually large comet appeared, Sept. 1. 

Richmond theatre burnt, Dec. 26. 

1812 War against Great Britain declared by the United States, June 18. 

General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, August 16. 

The French army enter Moscow, Sept. 14. 

British frigate Guerriere captured, August 29. 

do do Macedonian captured, Oct. 26. 

do do Java captured, Dec. 29. 

1813 Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake Erie, 

Sept. 10. 

1814 Napoleon Buonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the 

island of Elba, for which he sailed, April 28. 

City of Washington taken by the British, August 24. 

British squadron on lake Champlain captured by Commodore 

McDonough, Sept. 11. 

Pensacola taken by General Jackson, Nov. 7. 

— — Treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain, 

signed at Ghent, Dec. 24. 

The British repu.sed at New-Orleans, Dec. 28. 

1815 The British completely defeated, and General Packcnhain slain 

at New-Orleans, Jan. 8. 

United States frigate President taken by a British squadron, Jan. 16 

Peace between Great Britain and the United States ratified, Feb 

ruary 24. 

American Education Society instituted at Boston. 

- Battle of Waterloo. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 42$ 

A. D. 

1816 Deaf and Dumb, Society for the instruction of, instituted at Hal 

ford, Connecticut, June 24. 

American Bible Society formed. 

Indiana admitted into the Union as a state. 

1817 United States Bank opened for business at Philadelphia, Jan. 1. 
— American Colonization Society for free blacks organized, Jan. 1 

James Monroe, President of the United States, March 4. 

Mississippi admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 11. 

1818 Illinois admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 4. 

1818 Commercial treaties concluded between the United States on th 

one part, and Great Britain and Sweden on the ether. 

1819 A tieaty for the cession of Florida to the United States signed a 

Washington, Feb. 23. 

First steam-ship sails for Europe, May. 

Alabama admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 

1820 George III., king of England, dies, Jan. 29. 

George IV. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland. 

Maine admitted into the Union as a state. 

The American Colonization Society sent out their first colonist. 

to Liberia. 
Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 

1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a slate. 

Napoleon Buonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, aged 52. 

• Elias Boudinot, president of the American Bible Society, dies. 

1822 Columbia College established. 

Massacre of Greeks at Scio. 

"824 The Marquis de la Fayette visited the United States. 

American Sunday-School Union instituted at Philadelphia. 

1825 John Quincy Adams, President of the United States, Marcb ' 

American Tract Society instituted at New- York. 

1826 The Ex-Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jeffpr .July 

1829 Andrew Jackson, President of the United SU h 4. 

1830 An act passed by Congress, to remove tl 

of the states or territories, to the 

Fifth census of the United 8t 

tion, 12,850,240. 

George IV., kin? t 

William IV 

1836 Formati 

1837 Ma 

1^41 W. 4, and dies, April 

Vice ted in his place. 

Jame 
Genor 

War be -ties and Mexico declared, April. 

General ds the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de 

Palma e Mexicans, May 8 and 9. 

Matamordi. ^atten, May 15. 

Death of Pope Gregory XVI — Election of Pius IX, June. 
Storming and capture of Monterey, September 21. 
' Battle of Buena Vista, in which Santa Anna with 22, COO men is c 
feated by General Taylor with 5,000, February 23. 
Vera Cruz surrendered to General Scott, March 29. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

'he Mexicans defeated at Cerro Gordo by General Scott, April 18. 

Jattles of Contrerae and Cherubuscoj Mexican's again defeated, 

I August 20. T ffV, . 

Itorming of Cbapultepec, September 12. **%w 

Jity of Mexico taken by General Scott, September 14. 

Sx-President John Quincy Adams died at the capitol at Washing- 
ton, February 23. 

•jouis Philip abdicates in favor of the Count of Paris, and escapes to 
England, February 24. v 

The regux government abolished and republic proclaimed. 

insurrection in T ' : enna— the Emperor retires with his court to Inns- 
pruck, March. 

Treaty of peace between ttte United States and Mexico, signed at 
Guadaloupe, November. 

jeneral Taylor elected President of the United States, and Mr. Fill- 
more Vice-President, November. 

3ount Rossi, the Pope's minister, assassinated on the steps of Senate 
Chamber, November lf>. 

^he flight of the Pope from Home, and escape to Gaeta, November 24. 

A republic proclaimed at Rome, February. 

Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, declares war against Austria, and 
is defeated .y Radetski, March. 

General Taylor inaugurated President of the United States, March 4. 

Rome taken by the French — the republic abolished, and the autho- 
rity of the Pope re-established, July 2. 

Gorgey surrenders to the Russians at Vilagos. End of the Hunga- 
rian insurrection, August 11. 

Death cf John C. Calhoun in Washington, March 31. 

Death f sident Taylor, at the presidential mansion, Washing- 
ton, July 9. 

.. ^pez's second invasion of Cuba — is captured and executed, May 19. 

< d'etat of Louis Napoleon — end of the French Republic. 

• Pierce elected President of the United States, Nov. 
* r enry Clay, June 28. 
''el Webster, Oct. 24. 
Tfe-. fi inaugurated, March 4. 

^sident, dies April 18. 

->ed in the Crystal Palace, New York, July 14. 
luded between the United States and Japan, 
^ch. 

v a bill, May. 

>v — England and France form an 
i. ^ussia, May. 

Troubi n. - 

Preside*, "tate of aflairs in Kansas, 

February ^ _, . _ 

James Bucha: ,. States, and John C. 

Breckenridge, 

President Buchana. 

Franco-English expeu 

Franco-Spanish expedite 

Italian war. 

Battle of Magenta. 

Battle of Solferino. 

Italian revolution. 

Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of Italy. 



